Precautions for and experiences with introduction of exotic biological control agents into the former USSR1

The experience of introducing more than 120 species of exotic biological control agents for use against more than 40 species of pests during 70 years in the countries of the former USSR is analysed. The examples of biological protection of citrus orchards and some other programmes using biological control agents are described in more detail. The precautionary measures elaborated for these programmes consist of: (1) the prohibition of use by insufficiently qualified persons or non-State organizations; (2) phytosanitary procedures preventing the spread of quarantine pests; (3) elimination from the biological control material of any hyperparasites, diseases or other accidentally introduced organisms under adequate quarantine conditions; (4) investigations at the place of release of the biological control agent into the environment.     

The potential protective value of ants in Northern Australian coffee plantations

Abstract

Native ants are the oldest example of biological control agents used in tropical tree crops. Unfortunately, intensification of agricultural practices has led to a simplification of habitat and subsequent loss of native ant biodiversity. This article describes research that evaluated the native and introduced ants present in the canopies of two Australian sun coffee plantations, their distribution pattern and their potential to limit pests. The presence in coffee plantations of a range of beneficial insects and parasites, plus the effect of ants, most notably Iridomyrmex suchieri Forel, may maintain potential pests at low levels in coffee plantations. These effects may be important for future biological control programs of coffee pests in Australia, although the sun coffee grown here does not harbor a large variety of canopy ant species.     

Biological control and plant health in the UK1

The protected crop environment has long been recognized as offering particularly good opportunities for the application of biological control and this is reflected in the predominance of integrated pest management programmes and the wide range of biological control agents available. The introduction of new pest species of quarantine concern can often occur in glasshouse crops, as a result of international trade in plant material, and can have a highly disruptive impact upon well established, integrated pest management programmes. The use of biological control agents against quarantine pests is discussed, including both the use of exotic species and those established in the UK. The relevant legislation in the UK is outlined in relation to the introduction of non-native species, including both plant protection and conservation interests. Environmental safety aspects such as the impact of such introductions on non-target species and issues of quality control to prevent the introduction of contaminants are noted as of particular plant health interest.     

Native and introduced parasitoids attacking the invasive chestnut gall wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus

The globally invasive chestnut gall wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus was recently reported in Italy and threatens European chestnut orchards and native forests. Of Chinese origin, this species has invaded Japan, Korea, the USA, Nepal and Europe and in each region it has been attacked by parasitoids exploiting oak gall wasps. Classical biological control using the parasitoid Torymus sinensis (Hymenoptera: Torymidae) successfully reduced infestation in Japan. Subsequent work in Japan and Korea showed this parasitoid to represent a poorly understood and biologically diverse species complex. Following its success in Japan, T. sinensis was released in Italy in 2005. A growing appreciation of the taxonomic and ecological complexity of the T. sinensis complex in Japan and Korea has stimulated ongoing DNA-based work on relationships and interbreeding of species in this group. Oak cynipid parasitoids provide potential for native augmentative or conservation biological control of D. kuriphilus in Europe. Exploitation of this potential requires improved understanding of the taxonomy of these parasitoids, particularly of morphologically highly conserved lineages such as Eurytoma and Eupelmus in which recognised species may contain many cryptic lineages. There is a growing need for a molecular survey of the communities centered on chestnut and oak gall wasps to: (1) ascertain the identity of T. sinensis lineages released in Italy (2) track the dispersal of T. sinensis in the native community, either in its original form or as hybrids with native species (3) identify possible biological control agents in the native parasitoid community.     

Top 20 environmental weeds for classical biological control in Europe: a review of opportunities, regulations and other barriers to adoption

Classical biological control remains the only tool available for permanent ecological and economic management of invasive alien species that flourish through absence of their co‐evolved natural enemies. As such, this approach is recognized as a key tool for alien species management by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) and the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (ESIAS). Successful classical biological control programmes abound around the world, despite disproportionate attention being given to occasional and predictable non‐target impacts. Despite more than 130 case histories in Europe against insect pests, no exotic classical biological control agent has been released in the EU against an alien invasive weed. This dearth has occurred in the face of increasing numbers of exotic invasive plants being imported and taking over National Parks, forests and amenity areas in this region, as well as a global increase in the use of classical biological control around the world. This paper reviews potential European weed targets for classical biological control from ecological and socioeconomic perspectives using the criteria of historical biological control success, taxonomic isolation from European native flora, likely availability of biological control agents, invasiveness outside Europe and value to primary industry and horticulture (potential for conflicts of interest). We also review why classical biological control of European exotic plants remains untested, considering problems of funding and public perception. Finally, we consider the regulatory framework that surrounds such biological control activities within constituent countries of the EU to suggest how this approach may be adopted in the future for managing invasive exotic weeds in Europe.     

The complex symbiotic relationships of bark beetles with microorganisms: a potential practical approach for biological control in forestry

Bark beetles, especially Dendroctonus species, are considered to be serious pests of the coniferous forests in North America. Bark beetle forest pests undergo population eruptions, causing region wide economic losses. In order to save forests, finding new and innovative environmentally friendly approaches in wood-boring insect pest management is more important than ever. Several biological control methods have been attempted over time to limit the damage and spreading of bark beetle epidemics. The use of entomopathogenic microorganisms against bark beetle populations is an attractive alternative tool for many biological control programmes in forestry. However, the effectiveness of these biological control agents is strongly affected by environmental factors, as well as by the susceptibility of the insect host. Bark beetle susceptibility to entomopathogens varies greatly between species. According to recent literature, bark beetles are engaged in symbiotic relationships with fungi and bacteria. These types of relationship are very complex and apparently involved in bark beetle defensive mechanisms against pathogens. The latest scientific discoveries in multipartite symbiosis have unravelled unexpected opportunities in bark beetle pest management, which are discussed in this article.     

Efficacy and persistence of native entomopathogenic nematodes against Capnodis tenebrionis in peach (Prunus persica) orchard in Turkey

Phytoparasitica - Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) have an important potential in the biological control of agricultural soil pests. Efficacy and persistence of native EPN species from Turkey were...     

Invasive species research in the United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service

Invasive pests cause huge losses both to agricultural production systems and to the natural environment through displacing native species and decreasing biodiversity. It is now estimated that many thousand exotic insect, weed and pathogen species have been established in the USA and that these invasive species are responsible for a large portion of the $130 billion losses estimated to be caused by pests each year. The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) has responded with extensive research and action programs aimed at understanding these problems and developing new management approaches for their control. This paper provides an overview of some of the ARS research that has been conducted on invasive species over the past few years and addresses both different categories of research and some specific pest systems of high interest to the US Department of Agriculture.     

United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service research on biological control of arthropods

During 1999-2001, ARS scientists published over 100 papers on more than 30 species of insect pest and 60 species of predator and parasitoid. These papers address issues crucial to the three strategies of biological control: conservation, augmentation and introduction. Conservation biological control includes both conserving extant populations of natural enemies by using relatively non-toxic pesticides and increasing the abundance of natural enemies in crops by providing or improving refuges for population growth and dispersal into crops. ARS scientists have been very active in determining the effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods and in studying movement of natural enemies from refuges into crops. Augmentation involves repeated releases of natural enemies in the field, which can be inoculative or inundative. Inoculative releases are used to initiate self-propagating populations at times or in places where they would be slow to colonize. ARS scientists have studied augmentative biological control of a variety of pest insects. The targets are mostly pests in annual crops or other ephemeral habitats, where self-reproducing populations of natural enemies are not sufficiently abundant early enough to keep pest populations in check. ARS research in augmentative biological control centers on methods for rearing large numbers of healthy, effective natural enemies and for releasing them where and when they are needed at a cost less than the value of the reduction in damage to the crop. ARS scientists have researched various aspects of introductions of exotic biological control agents against a diversity of pest insects. The major issues in biological control introductions are accurate identification and adequate systematics of both natural enemies and target pests, exploration for natural enemies, predicting the success of candidates for introduction and the likelihood of non-target impacts, quarantine and rearing methods, and post-introduction evaluation of establishment, control and non-target impacts. ARS scientists have published research on several general issues in biological control. Among the most important are the mechanisms affecting mate- and host-finding and host specificity.     

Dutch elm disease in New Zealand: impacts from eradication and management programmes

Ophiostoma novo‐ulmi, the cause of the current pandemic of Dutch elm disease, is considered one of the 20 worst pests to have been introduced to New Zealand. An attempt to eradicate the pathogen came close to success, but was eventually stopped and replaced by management programmes. These programmes are slowing the spread of the pathogen. If left uncontrolled it is likely that New Zealand will lose 90% of its elm trees. Although elms are exotic trees in New Zealand, the loss of such a large number of popular amenity trees is likely to have numerous social, cultural, environmental and economic effects. It is estimated that this disease could cost public and councils over NZD $350 million in tree removal and replacement costs. Control of O. novo‐ulmi is limited, but biological control using d‐factor viruses has been proposed. Although O. novo‐ulmi was not eradicated from New Zealand, the eradication programme had many successes; in particular, the effective interaction of good management and science in the early years of the campaign. Also highlighted in this review are several tactics and steps that could be applied to eradication attempts for other species.     

Exploitation of predators in UK fruit and hop culture

A wide range of species of predators has been exploited, or has the potential to be exploited, as biological control agents against pests of fruit and hop. They include members of the families Miridae, Anthocoridae and Chrysopidae, and of the mite family Phytoseiidae. Some species can colonise fruit plantations naturally, whereas others are mass-cultured and introduced artificially. The characteristics of the various predator species are considered in relation to the requirements for biological control agents in specific crop situations.     

The commercial use of azadirachtin and its integration into viable pest control programmes

With the continued robust growth of the global biopesticide market, azadirachtin is uniquely positioned to become a key insecticide to expand in this market segment. In the USA the actual or impending cancellation of some organophosphate and carbamate insecticides that have either lost patent protection or are not being re-registered in many markets because of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, has opened new opportunities for biopesticides and reduced-risk pesticides in general. The broad-spectrum activity of azadirachtin at low use rates (12·5 to 40 g AI ha^-1) coupled with the insect growth regulator activity (in all larval/nymphal instars including the pupal stage) and unique mode of action (ecdysone disruptor), make azadirachtin an ideal candidate for insecticide resistance, integrated pest control and organic pest control programmes. Azadirachtin has been exempted from residue tolerance requirements by the US Environmental Protection Agency for food crop applications. Azadirachtin exhibits good efficacy against key pests such as whiteflies, leafminers, fungus gnats, thrips, aphids and many leaf-eating caterpillars. Azadirachtin has minimal to no impact on non-target organisms, is compatible with other biological control agents and has a good fit into classical Integrated Pest Management programmes. The world's largest azadirachtin extraction facility has been fully commissioned in India to process over 10,000 tonnes neem seeds per annum. This will ensure the wide availability of azadirachtin technical grade material in the future. © 1998 Society of Chemical Industry.     

Management strategies of mealybug pests of citrus in mediterranean countries

Six mealybug species have been reported as citrus pests in the Mediterranean Basin: the citrus mealybugPlanococcus citri (Risso), the citriculus mealybugPseudococcus cryptus Hempel, the longtailed mealybugPseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti), the citrophilus mealybugPseudococcus calceolariae (Maskell), the obscure mealybugPseudococcus viburni (Signoret) and the spherical mealybugNipaecoccus viridis (Newstead). Some of these species,e.g. N. viridis, have recently been introduced into the region and are still spreading. Mealybugs are usually occasional or minor pests of citrus, but some species can reach key pest status. Mealybug management strategies in citrus have been based mostly on classical biological control and, to a lesser extent, on augmentative releases. However, chemical control is widely used, mainly because of the poor adaptation of the principal natural enemies to the climatic conditions of the Mediterranean. The application of pheromones is still restricted to monitoring the citrus mealybug, whose sex pheromone is commercially available. Mass trapping and mating disruption should be considered for possible use in IPM programs as an alternative method to supplementary chemical treatments. Enhancement of biological control through management of ant populations is another promising tactic for control of mealybugs. Strategies for managing mealybug pests of citrus, and possible levels of integration of different tactics according to the pest status, are discussed. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Oct. 3, 2004.     

Integrated Pest Management of Pest Mole Crickets with Emphasis on the Southeastern USA

There are at least 70 species of mole crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae). Some are rare, others are innocuous, and a few are important pests. These soil-dwelling pests damage underground parts of a long list of cultivated plants. Although tillage and flooding are used successfully in some situations to bring these pests to the soil surface and expose them to vertebrate and other predators, chemical pesticides are widely used against them. Knowledge of their life history is used to time application of chemical treatments to save money, but is not used as widely as it might be. Classical biological control has been used against immigrant mole crickets in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the southern USA. In Florida, three Scapteriscus species from South America cause major damage to pastures and turf and are targets of a classical biological control program. Population levels of two of the pest species have been reduced substantially in Florida by establishment of a tachinid fly (Ormia depleta) and a steinernematid nematode (Steinernema scapterisci) from South America. The nematode also functions as a biopesticide. Managers of pastures and turf in Florida have thus far derived benefit from these classical biological control agents without understanding their function: use of chemicals is reduced when mole cricket populations are lower due to action of these organisms. Future enhancement of the action of O. depleta and of a sphecid wasp (Larra bicolor, which also was introduced from South America) probably will demand deliberate planting of nectar sources for adults of these biological control agents, and the advantage will be to managers who adopt such a strategy. Chemical pesticide use is strongly promoted by a large chemical industry, whereas biopesticidal use has thus far been little promoted and sales have been few. Even managers who do not change their simple strategy of pesticide use in response to damage by mole crickets, and have no knowledge of the differing life cycles of the three Scapteriscus species or of the presence and action of the classical biological control agents, will derive benefit as these biological control agents (and a predatory beetle which has not yet been released) increase their distribution.     

Thousand cankers disease in Europe: an overview

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is traditionally present in most European countries as an ornamental tree, and in Southern Europe in particular it is grown for both fruit and wood. Since the 1980s, to supply the increasing demand for walnut timber, large areas of southern and central Europe, from France to Hungary, have been planted with black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) to provide wood for furniture production. The fungus Geosmithia morbida and its vector Pityophthorus juglandis, causing the thousand cankers disease of walnut in the USA in the last 2 decades, were recently reported in Europe (in Italy) on both walnut species. Thousand cankers disease can have a high negative impact on the landscape and economy of many agricultural and forest areas. Following a detailed pest risk analysis performed by EPPO in 2015, both organisms were included in the EPPO A2 List of pests recommended for regulation as quarantine pests. The main biological, epidemiological and monitoring aspects of thousand cankers disease and its status in Europe are reported.     

Procedures and policies in the USA regarding precautions in the introduction of classical biological control agents

Classical biological control, the introduction of exotic natural enemies to control non-indigenous insect pests and weeds, has been practised in the USA for over 100 years. To date, there have been no fully documented, substantial negative results, and many important insect pests and weeds have been successfully controlled. Over the past decade, concern about the safety of biocontrol agents has increased in line with concern for general health of the natural, native biota. This concern has focused primarily on endangered, threatened, and listed species of plants, but is broadening to include most other organisms. Scientists, administrators and others involved in the process have long recognized the need to ensure that natural enemies of weeds do not attack commercially or horticulturally important plants and to ensure that natural enemies of insects do not attack beneficial species. Procedures for testing the host specificity of the natural enemies of weeds in their area of origin, before shipment to the country of release, have been developed to quite high levels of reliability but there is need for further improvements. Further host-specificity testing is often required in quarantine in the USA. The rigour of this system is helped by the fact that all applications for permission to introduce biocontrol agents are examined by an Inter-agency Technical Advisory Committee for Biological Control of Weeds (TAGBCW) before import permits are issued by the relevant authority (USDA APHIS/PPQ). TAGBCW review includes study of research plans and of lists of host plants for testing host specificity; it also analyses and offers advice on potential conflicts of interest. A ‘TAGBCW’ could be recommended for the European Union. With regard to natural enemies of insect pests, there is relatively little need for host-range testing of most parasitoids because these are generally co-evolved and intimately related organisms that are restricted to one or a few host species. Concern about the potential impact of oligophagous predators on non-target organisms has increased recently and is a developing field of research. Some operating procedures that involve safety are discussed. The import permit system in the USA is presented, and two suggestions for changes in European permit procedures are suggested. Past regulatory procedures for classical biological control in the USA are described, and the current situation is presented.     

生态工程控害技术提高稻纵卷叶螟天敌功能团的种群数量

随着水稻病虫害绿色防控技术的不断发展,应用生态工程控制害虫技术已取得较大进展。本研究对实施生态工程控害技术稻田中的稻纵卷叶螟天敌功能团的种群数量及时空动态进行了连续5年的跟踪调查,分别于2009、2011和2013年用扫网法进行系统采样调查分析,以探明生态工程技术对稻纵卷叶螟天敌功能团的动态影响。结果表明,尽管年份之间以及不同水稻生育期的天敌功能团数量有差异,但实施生态工程防控技术稻田中的蜻蜓目天敌功能团、肖蛸科天敌功能团和幼虫寄生蜂天敌功能团的种群数量均显著高于农民自防田,分别提高了1.63~8.94、0~3.69和1.20~2.47倍,且数量逐年递增或维持较高水平。本研究结果说明通过实施水稻生态工程控害技术可以有效提高稻田稻纵卷叶螟天敌功能团的种群数量,这对减少化学农药使用和提高水稻生长中后期的天敌控害作用有重要的意义。     

Progress towards the integrated control of sugar cane pests

Sugar cane is an important tropical and sub-tropical crop that occupies large areas of land around sugar factories capable of processing 5000 to 15 000 tonnes of cane per day. These areas are usually kept continuously under the same crop, about one-tenth to one-third of the land being ploughed and replanted with sugar cane every year. The major pests of sugar cane are rats, stalk borers, white grubs and froghoppers. Other important pests include root-feeding nematodes, top borers, scale insects, planthoppers and soldier fly. Chemical control is practised to some extent against most of these pests, although biological control is the most common method of combating stalk-borers and has had other notable successes, particularly in Hawaii and Mauritius. Rats are controlled with baits incorporating poisons such as anticoagulants, endrin or zinc phosphide. Aerial applications of insecticide sprays, dusts or granules are used against some stalk-borers (azinphos-methyl), froghoppers (omethoate, propoxur, vamidothion, methidathion, monocrotophos, malathion, carbaryl, gamma-HCH) and plant hoppers (malathion, fenitrothion, endrin). White grubs, soldier fly (crude HCH, dieldrin) and nematodes [1,2-dibromoethane (EDB), 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP), aldicarb] are usually controlled with soil applications of the appropriate chemicals. The use of chemical control is restricted in some areas because it is too costly and in other areas because of its possibly adverse effects upon the natural or biological control of other pests. Historically, pest control in sugar cane has tended to develop towards a simple integrated system, making use of cultural methods in conjunction with chemicals or exotic parasites and predators. Increasingly, allowance has been made for the contribution of indigenous natural enemies to the prevention of crop losses by a more careful, selective use of insecticides.     

捕食性瓢虫的利用

瓢虫在生物防治发展历史中占据着重要的地位，Ｃｏｐｐｅｌ和Ｍａｒｔｉｎｓ（１９７７）在《害虫生物抑制》一书中，把１８８８年作为害虫防治早期历史与中期历史的分界。这是由于１８８８年美国加利福尼亚州自澳大利亚移殖澳洲瓢虫防治吹绵蚧获得成功，使引进天敌防治害虫成为一项重要措施，在害虫防治研究中更加重视天敌的作用，推动着生物防治工作的开展。本文介绍了捕食性瓢虫的种类及区系分布，捕食性瓢虫的输引情况，总结了瓢虫人工繁殖以及捕食性瓢虫的利用研究概况。     

缨翅目害虫蓟马生物防治的研究进展

缨翅目Thysanoptera昆虫,俗称蓟马,其种类繁多、数量庞大,主要通过取食和传播植物病毒病进行为害.蓟马害虫已经发展成为我国热带地区最重要的农业害虫类群之一,对农作物和园艺植物造成了巨大的经济损失.天敌作为其重要的生物防治资源,在蓟马害虫防治中尤为关键.据此,本文结合国内外研究对西花蓟马和我国热带地区主要蓟马害虫...