Rural‐to‐Urban Commuting: Three Degrees of Integration

Commuting ties between rural places of residence and urban places of employment are among the most visible forms of rural–urban integration. For some rural areas, access to urban employment is a key source of population retention and growth. However, this access varies considerably across rural areas, with distance representing a primary deterrent. In addition to distance, the size of the urban community will also influence rural‐to‐urban commuting opportunities. In this paper, using Canadian data, we empirically estimated the influence of local rural population and job growth on rural out‐commuting within the urban hierarchy. We find consistent support for the deconcentration hypothesis where population moves to rural areas for lifestyle and quality of life reasons, while retaining urban employment. Further, we find some evidence that in addition to distance from the nearest urban center being a deterrent, increased remoteness from the top of the urban hierarchy exerts a positive influence on out‐commuting. Recognition of these types of rural–urban linkages through commuting is essential in designing Canadian rural policy and targeted programs that may effectively support local rural populations. In particular, they point to the need to have reasonable transportation infrastructure for urban accessibility, which should be complemented by other “built” infrastructure to improve the livability of rural communities.     

Voting with Their Feet: Jobs versus Amenities

ABSTRACT The determinants of rural and urban community population change over the period 1991–2001 are investigated at a very fine level of disaggregation for Canada. The study examines the influence of local amenities, economic factors, and agglomeration economies on population growth for age cohorts starting from the very young to the elderly. Motivated by the objective of assessing the overall jobs versus people question in economic development, the emphasis is on estimating the relative contribution of groupings of variables in explaining the variations in population change rather than the contribution of individual variables. Results indicate that rural and urban populations are influenced to differing degrees by amenity, economic, and urban scale groupings of variables and that there are variations among age cohorts in both urban and rural areas. While economic variables are the most influential in population change for all rural cohorts, their contribution somewhat diminishes with age. In urban areas, amenity, and economic variable groupings have approximately equal importance across all cohorts. For the key young adult cohort, the economic grouping is clearly the most influential in rural areas, while it is a close second to amenities in urban areas.     

Spatiotemporal patterns in China's Minimal Living allowances: The urban-rural gap and regional differences revealed through a national poverty alleviation program

The Minimal Living Standard Allowance System (MLSAS), established by the Chinese central government in the late 1990s, was intended to provide basic needs for urban and rural low-income populations. Although the subsidy standards of MLSAS have increased rapidly over the years, its distributions in time and space were found imbalanced. Using the per capita subsidy income (PCSI) data of 338 Chinese cities from 2008 to 2016, this study quantified the spatiotemporal patterns of the urban-rural gap and regional differences of MLSAS throughout China and identified the major influential socioeconomic factors of the observed patterns. The results showed that the PCSI of China's low-income populations increased rapidly but with large variations between urban and rural residents and between geographic regions. The PCSI in rural areas was much lower than that in urban areas, whereas the Gini coefficient of PCSI in urban areas was lower than that in rural areas, indicating the allowance from MLSAS was more unequal among rural residents. Additionally, the higher PCSI was concentrated mainly in three urban agglomerations in eastern China. Most cities in central and western China lagged in terms of PCSI. Correlation analysis between PCSI and socioeconomic factors indicated that the income and GDP per capita were the most important influencing factors. With a better understanding of the overall situation of the urban-rural gap and regional differences in implementing MLSAS, the current study should help improve the subsistence subsidy policies in China.     

农村集体建设用地集约利用面临的挑战与对策——以渝东北11区县为例

渝东北地区作为重庆市“一圈两翼”发展战略的重要组成部分,具有三峡库区的特殊性,该地区农村集体建设用地的集约利用将更加有效地显化农村土地资产、保护库区生态环境。基于此本文对渝东北地区丰都、忠县、垫江、梁平、万州、开县、云阳、奉节、巫山、巫溪、城口等11个区县展开实地调研,并综合运用问卷调查、专家咨询和文献资料等方法,解析了该地区“宅基地置换城镇住房保障”、“城乡建设用地增减挂钩”等多种土地集约利用创新模式,以及产权管理模糊、规划管理薄弱等面临的挑战,最后从完善农村集体建设用地产权、统筹城乡建设用地规划管理2个方面论述了农村集体建设用地集约利用的对策建议。     

西部农村人力资源开发刍议

我国西部农村面临西部大开发的战略机遇,开发农村人力资源刻不容缓。但目前农村人力资源质量不高,流动性差,而中国将面临人口红利的枯竭,这都给我国的城乡统筹及西部开发提出挑战。本文在分析西部人力资源开发必要性的基础上,提出了加大政府支持力度和管理创新,积极推进农村教育培训,建立农村人力资源市场体系等举措,以实现西部农村人力资源的可持续发展。     

Using Economic Base Models to Explain New Trends in Rural Income

The economics or urban and rural areas in the United States continue to experience change in their structure, leading to changes in their economic base. This paper argues that nontraditional sources of income, employment, and business activity have become more important in the economic base of rural areas. Current trends in rural parts of the western United States are used to document this argument. In spite of the decline in the relative or absolute important of traditional natural-resource-oriented industries in the rural West, in the 1990s this region is experiencing population growth rates well above those of the nation as whole. This reversal of development experience from the 1990s is analyzed empirically, and extended economic base models are proposed to capture forces which now are found to be of growing significance in explaining current development trends in western rural economics.     

Job Lock in Rural versus Urban Labor Markets

While the possible negative effect of employer‐sponsored health insurance on labor mobility (job lock) has spawned substantial research, little research has considered differences in job lock between rural and urban areas. Job lock might differ in rural areas because of specific features of rural economies, in particular, the thinness of rural labor markets. This paper estimates measures of job lock for rural and urban areas. Parameter estimates suggest that it is larger in rural areas. The results also indicate that nonwage benefits such as retirement plans, paid vacation, and sick pay are more important factors in married rural workers decisions to change jobs while wages are a more important factor in the transition decisions of single urban workers.     

The peri‐urbanisation of Shanghai: Planning,growth pattern and sustainable development

Abstract: With the increase of global integration, the peri‐urban area (PUA) of megacities in Asia has become a favourite destination for foreign direct investment (FDI). This paper uses the PUA of Shanghai as a case study to investigate the impact of global forces on the urban expansion of the city, and the link between urban growth and sustainable development in this mega‐urban context. Shanghai has grown impressively during the past two decades in terms of economic and physical transformation. Much of this transformation has rested on the unbridled exploitation of land and other environmental resources in its peri‐urban area. This is characterised by the designation of development zones and the concentration of manufacturing FDI, resulting in dispersed growth and environmental degradation. The disruption of the physical environment, combined with the concentration of the urban poor in these areas (in particular ‘temporary migrants’), has turned the PUA into a potential crisis point threatening the social and economic development of the city.     

Resource Flows and the Decomposition of Regional Inequality in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Metropolitan Region, 1990–2004

This paper introduces a new way of decomposing regional inequality. It divides the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei metropolitan region into three sets of districts in terms of the urban–rural resource flows: urban, peri‐urban, and peripheral areas. Unlike the administrative divisions, these three sets of districts show how resource flows and agglomerates at the regional level. The paper decomposes regional inequality according to the three sets of districts. The paper's findings show that regional inequality decreased between 1990 and 1994, after which it remained steady. The study, for the first time, brings peri‐urban areas into a regional decomposition analysis, and contributes to the understanding of urban–rural resource flows and inequality changes at the regional level.     

Skills across the Urban–Rural Hierarchy

This paper examines the vertical and horizontal dimensions of human capital across regions within the U.S., ranging from densely populated city centers to isolated and sparsely populated rural areas. To do so, we classify detailed geographic areas into categories along the entire urban–rural hierarchy. An occupation‐based cluster analysis is then used to complement the conventional measure of human capital, based on college attainment, by measuring the types of skills available in the regional workforce. We find that differences in human capital across the urban–rural hierarchy are related to both the types of work performed in urban and rural areas and that a higher share of college‐educated workers is present in urban areas regardless of the skills typically required to perform the job.     

The Influence of Location on Productivity: Manufacturing Technology in Rural and Urban Areas

ABSTRACT Policies to counter the growing discrepancy between economic opportunities in rural and urban areas have focused predominantly on expanding manufacturing in rural areas. Fundamental to the design of these strategies are the relative costs of production and productivity of manufacturing in rural compared to urban areas. This study develops information that can be used to assess the productivity of manufacturing in rural and urban areas. Production functions are estimated for the meat-products and household-furniture industries to investigate selected aspects of location and productivity. The results show that the effect of location on productivity varies with industry, size, and the timing of entry. Although the analysis is specific to two industries, it suggests that development policies targeting manufacturing can be more effective if they focus on industries and plants with characteristics that predispose them to the locations they support.     

县域农村居民点适宜性评价——以陕西省陇县为例

为优化农村居民点布局,促进城乡协调发展,运用层次分析法对农村居民点适宜性进行评价。选取西北地区地貌类型多样、地形破碎复杂的陇县作为研究区,基于县域特点和农村居民点用地特征,从自然因素和社会经济因素两个方面确定评价指标。将高程、坡度、坡向、水源影响度作为自然要素评价指标,将道路通达度、城镇中心可达性、用地规模作为社会经济要素评价指标,在ArcGIS 10.3软件支持下,利用多层分析加权求和的方法,以20 m×20 m的栅格像元大小作为评价单元,对陇县农村居民点进行多因素综合评价。将用地适宜性划分为适宜、较适宜、基本适宜和不适宜4个等级,分别占用地总规模的13.88%、42.84%、34.48%、8.80%。结果表明,适宜农村居民点用地自然条件优越,交通便捷,距离城镇中心较近且用地规模大,适合设施建设需要;较适宜农村居民点用地分布广泛,地势略有起伏,交通方便,城镇中心可达性较高且具有一定的规模;基本适宜农村居民点用地自然条件略差,道路通达度一般,城镇中心可达性和用地规模有限制;不适宜农村居民点用地地形条件差,交通不便,距离城镇中心远且多为零碎地块,不利于居民点发展。研究结果为农村居民点用地选择提供了理论基础。     

农地城市流转驱动力与农地保护研究

无论在发达国家，还是在发展中国家，农地城市流转现象是其实现工业化和城市化所必须付出的一种代价，已经成为经济发展和城市化、工业化进程中的一个普遍现象。人多地少的国情决定我国农地保护的重要性，但是对处于城市化的加速发展阶段的中国，农地流转必将会持续一段时间，可见，我国农地保护面临的形势不容乐观。本文在他人研究的基础上，认为农地是在地方政府、村经济集体、农民、企业以及居民几大动力主体的相互作用下，在制度缺陷、经济增长、区位状况、城市化以及价值观念驱动力的共同作用下，不断地向城市转移的。最后，提出了保护农地，必须树立科学发展观等对策。     

中国西部地区县域城乡统筹发展模式探讨

县域城乡统筹发展是西部地区经济社会发展的必由之路。现阶段,受资源禀赋、人力资源、产业发展、制度环境等要素条件影响,中国东、中、西部县域城乡统筹发展水平有明显差异。自2001年国家实施西部大开发战略以来,特别是“十一五”时期,西部地区县域经济城乡统筹发展已经取得积极成效。西部不少市县在立足当地实际、因地制宜地加快县域城乡统筹发展的过程中,逐步形成各具特色的县域城乡统筹发展模式。对于西部地区县域城乡统筹发展模式的研究,也就在于总结、梳理西部各省县域城乡统筹发展成就、经验和做法,比较不同区域、不同县区县域城乡统筹发展路子或模式,探讨西部地区统筹城乡发展、转变经济发展方式思路和对策。     

中国教育的城乡不平衡发展探究

随着中国市场经济的不断发展和城市化进程的逐步推进,社会与经济发展中也出现了很多新的问题。其中,城乡经济与社会发展不协调造成的城乡教育不平衡发展成为影响社会发展和经济增长的主要因素。中国城乡教育失衡由城乡教育资金投入差距、城乡师资力量差距和城乡教育机会差距这3方面原因造成。教育的城乡差距反过来又在经济方面造成农村经济发展滞后,形成了“经济滞后——教育落后——经济滞后”的恶性循环。在就业方面,造成农村人才不足的同时城市就业压力过大。在社会发展方面,造成农村的人口、法制、文化等方面落后于城镇的水平。最后提出加大对农村教育的扶持力度,从教育机会分配的优惠政策、提高教育资金投入和加强师资力量建设这3个方面入手,推动农村教育发展,缩小城乡教育差距。     

城市功能区视角下的都市农区研究

为了科学规划城市农用地,有必要确立都市农区概念,研究都市农区的基本内涵、空间特征和地域类型。都市农区是指由城市空间内农用地构成的城市功能区,一般仅限于市辖区。相对理想化的都市农区的空间尺度大体上为200 hm²,宜以呈小集中大分散的空间形态融入城市功能组团。都市农区有城市化地区、准城市化地区、半城市化地区、浅城市化地区和城市生态敏感区5种地域类型。依据都市农区区位特征、资源禀赋与功能需求的差异性,合理配置依托城市、服务城市的多功能农业,是形成城乡经济社会发展一体化新格局对城市规划提出的重要新课题。     

关于加快城乡融合发展推动乡村建设的思考

现阶段中国总体处于城镇化快速发展阶段,工农互促,城乡互补。但城乡收入和消费差距仍然较为悬殊,全员劳动生产率差距很大,农村基础设施依然薄弱,农村社会保障水平偏低。随着城镇化发展,一些村庄融入城镇,劳动力大量外出,一些村庄出现了空心化、老龄化问题,同时,随着重大工程实施等,一些村庄也出现了搬迁撤并等新的情况与问题。在乡村振兴的背景下,本研究结合欧洲乡村建设发展的情况和特点,针对国内乡村建设存在的问题,提出了统筹城乡发展空间,做有特色的乡村建设规划,培育新型农业经营主体,融合发展保持乡村活力等一些新的思考与建议。     

江西省统筹低碳城乡一体化研究

城乡一体化是中国的重大战略决策,也是中国工业化和城镇化顺利推进的根本保证。为了促进江西省低碳城乡一体化发展,需要就江西省城乡一体化发展过程中存在的问题进行剖析,分析出现这些问题的原因和本质,以及解决的方法和途径,并在此基础上提出相应的对策和政策建议。通过采用定性和定量的分析方法,从能源供应、绿色低碳、耕地保护、城乡差距、城市规模等方面,对江西省城乡一体化的现状、未来的发展趋势以及面临的挑战进行了分析。结果表明,江西省在发展经济的过程中,出现产业发展重工化和高碳化、能源供应短缺、粮食安全难以保障、城乡差距扩大以及城市规模不合理等问题。针对这些问题,江西省应从加强能源储备、发展低碳产业、保护农用耕地、缩小城乡差距等方面,积极实施有效的政策措施,以确保能源供应安全和粮食安全,并推动城镇化朝着绿色、低碳、城乡协调的方向发展,为江西省的低碳城乡一体化发展提供有力保障。     

Diverse diversities—Open innovation in small towns and rural areas

It is generally accepted that cities and other forms of geographic agglomerations are conducive to innovation because their density and variety of firms, sectors and individuals create a diverse environment. However, a growing body of work shows that innovation also occurs in peripheral regions and small towns. Furthermore, work on rural social networks shows that diversity is multidimensional, and that along certain dimensions networks developed in rural areas are more diverse than those observed in cities. In this paper, we develop these arguments, then report our observations of seven successful firms in Swiss small towns. These firms benefit from at least three types of diversity: internal diversity; multiplexed interactions between workers at different hierarchical levels; and external diversity as firms reach beyond the region. We conclude that diversity conducive to firm‐level innovation is not a specifically urban attribute: at least some of its dimensions are present in small towns and more peripheral areas.     

Practices of place‐making: Globalisation and locality in the Philippines

Abstract: Global flows of people and information in the Asia–Pacific region are creating new forms of place that stretch across national boundaries and rural–urban distinctions. These new mobile forms of place link long‐inhabited rural areas to cities, national centres, and to rural frontiers within the nation. Here, we describe new forms of place that are being produced by contemporary migration and economic change, using data from the Philippines and applying Appadurai's theorisation of translocality. Our analysis links these flows of overseas migrants to concomitant processes of economic change, migration and new rural livelihoods. We outline changing practices of place within the Philippines, exploring ways that transnational migration can articulate with apparently ‘local’ development and the flow‐on effects from migration on the spatial patterns of rural livelihoods.