Management of Grazing Intensity in the Semi‐Arid Rangelands of Southern Australia: Effects on Soil and Biodiversity

Overgrazing contributes to rangeland degradation altering plant community composition, erosion and biodiversity. Little unanimity in the literature exists on the effects of livestock grazing on soil carbon and biodiversity, in part, due to uncontrolled grazing pressure from native and feral animals. Paired paddock contrasts at three, long‐term (>8 years) study locations in the southern Australian rangelands were used to examine the effects of managing grazing intensity through the use of exclusion fencing and rotational grazing on soil organic carbon (SOC), soil nitrogen (TN), ground cover and biodiversity (flora and invertebrates). Grazing management had no effect on SOC or TN on grey soils (Vertisols), but for red soils (Lixisols), significantly higher levels of SOC were found for both the 0 to 5 and 5 to 10‐cm soil depths (0·3% and 0·27% respectively) and associated with increased TN. We found strong and consistent relationships among SOC and higher perennial (p < 0·001), higher litter (p < 0·05) cover and close proximity to trees (p < 0·05). Managing grazing intensity resulted in significantly higher perennial ground cover (p < 0·001) on Vertisols (8·9 to 11%) and Lixisols (12·5 to 15%) and higher plant diversity (both native and exotic) but negatively impacted invertebrate diversity, indicating trade‐offs between production and resources. We provide evidence that the effects of grazing management on SOC are mediated by ground cover and increased organic matter supply and/or reduced soil carbon redistribution (erosion), which indicates that the management of grazing intensity may provide a tool to avoid soil carbon loss in rangelands. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Frog communities and wetland condition: relationships with grazing by domestic livestock along an Australian floodplain river

Frogs are in decline worldwide, and are known to be sensitive indicators of environmental change. Floodplains of the Murray-Darling Basin in southeastern Australia have been altered in many ways by livestock grazing, by the introduction of exotic fish, and by changes to flooding regimes. These changes have led to declines in wetland condition and hence to the availability of habitat for wetland frogs. This study examined relationships between frogs, wetland condition and livestock grazing intensity at 26 wetlands on the floodplain of the Murrumbidgee River. Frog communities, species richness, and some individual species of frogs declined with increased grazing intensity. Wetland condition also declined with increased grazing intensity, particularly the aquatic vegetation and water quality components. There were clear relationships between frog communities and wetland condition, with several taxa responding to aquatic and fringing vegetation components of wetland condition. Thus, grazing intensity appeared to influence frog communities through changes in wetland habitat quality, particularly the vegetation. Reduced stocking rates may result in improved wetland condition and more diverse frog communities. River management to provide natural seasonal inundation of floodplain wetlands may also enhance wetland condition, frog activity and reproductive success.     

Eucalypt establishment in agricultural landscapes and implications for landscape-scale restoration

In south-eastern Australia large-scale re-establishment of woody vegetation is required to halt loss of biodiversity, land degradation and dryland salinisation. Revegetation is often undertaken via intensive replanting by tube-stock or seed although such methods are costly and can have limited biodiversity benefits. Regeneration from naturally dispersed seed is an alternative and cost-effective method of revegetation. Describing the relationships between broad-scale patterns of natural regeneration, landscape characteristics, climate and current and historical land use could assist in the development of regional revegetation strategies. In this paper we describe the results of a survey of eucalypt regeneration across 519 sites in grassy dry forests and grassy woodlands of central Victoria, Australia. Eucalypt regeneration was observed in 27% of all sites. The probability of eucalypt regeneration was reduced by intensive past land use (cultivation), regular livestock grazing, increasing distance to remnant trees and high cover of exotic annual vegetation. Even when these factors were taken into account, public land was predicted to have higher probabilities of supporting regeneration suggesting that a long-history of agriculture can limit future recruitment even when grazing is removed. Although the highest probability of regeneration was observed in ungrazed sites, regeneration also occurred under intermittent grazing regimes. Natural regeneration has potential to make considerable contributions to future tree cover in these landscapes. Scenario testing at three farms suggests that under current patterns of tree cover (2.7%), 40% of the total area has a high probability of supporting natural regeneration in the absence of livestock grazing. However, due to paddock tree decline this could be reduced to 18% of total farm area if no management action is taken in the next 30 years.     

Contrasting Effects of Aridity and Grazing Intensity on Multiple Ecosystem Functions and Services in Australian Woodlands

Global change is expected to reduce the provision of multiple ecosystem services in drylands, the largest biome on Earth. Understanding the relative importance of climate change and overgrazing on ecosystems services is critical for predicting the effects of global change on ecosystem well‐being. We generated a system‐level understanding of the effects of climate (aridity intensity) and land use intensification (herbivore grazing intensity) on four regulating ecosystem services (C‐storage, N‐availability and P‐availability, and organic matter decomposition) and one provisioning service (plant production) in wooded drylands from eastern Australia. Climate change and grazing intensity had different effects on multiple ecosystem services. Increasing aridity from 0·19 (dry subhumid) to 0·63 (arid) had consistent suppressive effects on C‐storage, N‐availability, decomposition and plant biomass services, but not on P‐availability. The magnitude of these suppressive effects was greater than any effects due to grazing. All sites showed evidence of kangaroo grazing, but the heaviest grazing was due to cattle (dung: range 0–4545 kg ha⁻¹; mean 142 kg ha⁻¹). Any effects of grazing on ecosystem services were herbivore specific and ranged from positive to neutral or negative. Sheep, and to a lesser extent cattle, were associated with greater N‐availability. Rabbits, however, had a greater effect on P‐availability than aridity. Our study suggests that increases in livestock grazing may fail to sustain ecosystem services because of the generally stronger negative effect of increasing aridity on most ecosystem services in our model dryland. These services are likely therefore to decline with global increases in aridity. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

人为干扰活动对沂蒙山区麻栎林群落结构和水文性能的影响

为了探讨人为干扰对林分结构和水文性能的影响,采用样地调查和试验观测方法,研究沂蒙山区麻栎林在封禁保育、放牧樵采和禁牧禁伐干扰下灌草植被多样性和水文性能.结果表明：1）放牧樵采干扰导致麻栎林群落灌草多样性和水文性能明显下降.与封禁保育群落相比,灌草植被盖度、多样性和均匀度指数降低了83.0％、88.7％和85.1％;土壤总孔隙度、稳渗速率和林地枯落物持水量减小了44.2％、76.7％和43.7％.2）实施禁牧禁伐保护能明显改善麻栎林群落的植物多样性和水文性能,与放牧樵采干扰群落相比,灌草植被盖度、多样性和均匀度指数提高了520％、613％和532％,土壤总孔隙度、稳渗速率和枯落物持水量高了30.3％、103.7％和28.0％.3）麻栎林群落的灌草植被盖度,与植物多样性测度及水文性能指标之间存在明显的正相关关系,其大小可作为综合表征群落多样性和水文功能退化或恢复程度的指标.     

基于meta分析的放牧压力对内蒙古高原草地生态系统的影响

放牧是最主要的草地利用模式,直接或间接地影响草地物质循环和能量流动,放牧强度对草地的健康状况和演替方向起决定作用。本文基于40篇内蒙古草原放牧相关文献数据,通过meta分析探讨温带草原对放牧强度的响应特征。结果表明,与未放牧草地相比,轻度放牧草地对群落植物地上、地下生物量和土壤全氮和全磷含量无显著影响,而土壤有机碳、微生物生物量碳、细菌和真菌数量分别显著上升3.60%、7.80%、11.40%和10.83%（P<0.05）;中度放牧下群落植物地下生物量和土壤微生物数量无显著变化,而地上生物量和土壤有机碳、全氮、全磷和微生物生物量氮含量分别显著降低21.62%、4.44%、2.15%、8.35%和6.76%（P<0.05）;重度放牧下群落植物地上和地下生物量,土壤有机碳、全氮、全磷、微生物生物量碳含量,细菌和放线菌数量分别显著下降39.72%、16.30%、7.62%、6.46%、8.03%、8.76%、12.92%和18.27%（P<0.05）。以上结果表明轻度放牧有利于土壤肥力和草地生产力的保持和提升,而当放牧干扰超出一定的限度时,草地各项功能均显著下降而发生退化。本研究可为内蒙古温带草原的合理利用和适应性管理提供理论基础。     

放牧模式对内蒙古典型草原生长季土壤呼吸速率的影响

【目的】放牧改变了典型草原生产力和土壤养分循环,影响了植被和土壤微生物的生长状况,进而使草原土壤碳排放量发生变化。本研究通过分析不同放牧措施下内蒙古典型草原生长季土壤呼吸速率 (Rs) 的差异,了解不同放牧管理模式影响草原碳交换和碳平衡的主要途径。【方法】基于内蒙古典型草原全年放牧、休牧及禁牧三种放牧措施,于2014和2015年的7月和9月对Rs进行原位测定,并分析了不同放牧措施下Rs及其影响因子的差异。【结果】1) 三种放牧措施下,Rs表现为休牧样地 [CO₂ 2.00 μmol/(m2·s)] > 禁牧样地 [CO₂ 1.94 μmol/(m2·s)]> 全年放牧样地 [CO₂ 1.56 μmol/(m2·s)]。放牧对Rs的影响还存在季节效应,7月份放牧降低了Rs,而9月份放牧则提高了Rs。2) 与禁牧措施相比,放牧和休牧管理均降低了地上生物量(70.6%和47.3%)、土壤总碳含量(34.5%和32.0%)、土壤总氮含量(37.0%和34.5%),但休牧显著提高了根系生物量(37.2%)。全年放牧样地中土壤可溶性有机碳提高,但微生物磷脂脂肪酸含量下降。3) 7月份Rs主要与土壤湿度和地上生物量显著正相关,而9月份则与土壤温度和土壤PLFAs含量显著正相关。结构方程模型 (SEM) 结果显示,土壤温度 (0.905) 和湿度 (0.188) 通过影响微生物和根系的代谢环境对生长季Rs起主导作用,放牧通过降低土壤湿度和地上生物量对Rs有抑制作用 (–0.137)。【结论】全年放牧通过抑制微生物的生长降低了土壤呼吸速率,休牧通过提高根系生物量增加了土壤呼吸速率,说明放牧对内蒙古典型草原生长季土壤呼吸速率的影响途径因放牧模式的不同而不同。     

基于生态服务功能提升的高标准农田建设的分区方法

耕地生态服务功能与生产功能同步提升是"新时代"高标准农田建设主要目标,而面向生态服务功能提升的高标准农田分区及调控设计是生态型农田建设有效实施的根本前提。论文以榆中县为例,首先运用生态系统服务功能与权衡交易综合评价模型(Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs,InVEST)对研究区生境质量、土壤保持、碳固持和食物供给四种生态系统服务功能进行评估,分析各类生态系统服务空间分异规律,明确各研究单元低值生态服务类型;其次,对影响区域生态系统服务功能的障碍因素进行识别,将其划分为可调控与不可调控2种类型;第三,通过构建高标准农田建设措施与生态系统服务功能间的关系框架,结合可调控的障碍因素,确定不同区域高标准农田建设主导方向,进而提出生态型高标准农田建设分区方法及调控措施。研究指出,生态型高标准农田建设分区可以有效促进"田、水、路、林"各项工程措施的生态效应发挥,是实现生态服务功能和生产功能同步提升、目标融合的有效模式,可以为生态文明建设的理论思考和实践创新提供重要依据。     

Using traits of species to understand responses to land use change: Birds and livestock grazing in the Australian arid zone

The expansion of the artificial water-point network and livestock grazing in arid and semi-arid Australia has significantly increased access to water by water limited herbivores and thus has potential to seriously negatively affect the unique endemic flora and fauna. We examined the effects of the expansion of the water-point network on the arid and semi-arid zone bird community, using data from the Atlas of Australia bird surveys of 1977-1981 and 1996-2001. We examined whether traits of species could be used to uncover the critical ecological processes altered by this land use change. We detected large scale declines in individual species. Species reliant on water for nesting and feeding declined more than other groups in the presence of high water-point density, likely through direct effects of livestock degrading habitat of both natural and artificial water points. The arid zone has no natural hoofed animals and livestock have significant impacts. Species that forage and nest on the ground also showed large declines, likely because of trampling and removal of vegetation by livestock and potentially through the indirect effect of water limited predators, dingos and foxes, expanding their ranges in response to the expanding network of water points in the landscape. This result was also apparent at large spatial scales so that these local-scale responses to water points translate into continental-scale population declines. Using traits of species to understand declines of bird species helped us to uncover which critical changes associated with the expansion of the water-point network most affected the bird community and therefore which species are most at risk.     

Grazing promotes dung beetle diversity in the xeric landscape of a Mexican Biosphere Reserve

We analyze the impact of grazing on dung beetle diversity at the Barranca de Metztitlán Biosphere Reserve, a xeric ecosystem in central Mexico with a long history of use by humans. We compared the community structure, as well as the alpha and beta diversity between two cover conditions (open and closed vegetation) that represent the impact of grazing within a habitat, and between habitat types (submountainous and crassicaule scrublands). From 576 samples we collected 75,605 dung beetles belonging to 20 taxa. While mean species richness and diversity were different between habitat types, cumulative species richness was not. The effects of grazing on vegetation structure influenced the cumulative species richness and diversity of dung beetles in the submountainous scrubland, where grazing has created land mosaics of a grassland matrix with scrubland patches. This was not the case in the crassicaule scrubland where the impact of grazing is not as evident. Beta diversity significantly responds to the effects of grazing on habitat conditions. We discuss the ecological factors that may promote these responses by landscape diversity components. We also identify the species that could act as useful indicators to monitor the effect of land management on biodiversity. Our results indicate cattle farming maintains a diversified land mosaic, and these areas support more diverse dung beetle ensembles than homogeneous areas of closed, shrubby vegetation cover. Thus, controlled grazing activity could certainly favour the conservation of dung beetle biodiversity and improve ecosystem functioning by maintaining dung decomposition rates.     

The role of traditional farming practices in ecosystem conservation: The case of transhumance and vultures

Transhumance is a traditional livestock practice based on the movement of livestock between winter and summer pastures with importance placed on biodiversity conservation. We analyzed the transhumant activity of sheep and cows in the uplands of the Cantabrian Mountains, NW Spain, and its influence on the ecology and management of the griffon vulture, a scavenger with a relevant ecosystem function. For the first time, we provided strong evidence of the close relationship between vultures and transhumance, which was previously only suggested. Vultures occupied roosting sites very close to the summer pastures and often consumed livestock carcasses. There was a strong spatiotemporal adjustment in the use of these mountain areas by transhumant livestock, especially sheep, and vultures. The number of transhumant sheep and cows within 10-12.5 km around the roosts were the best predictors of vulture occurrence and abundance, respectively, in generalized linear mixed models. Our estimates of potentially available food from livestock carcasses for vultures indicated that our study area can maintain important griffon vulture populations through a system based on traditional livestock farming including transhumance. Thus, transhumance is able to influence the top of the ecosystem (scavengers) and could aid in sustainable management of griffon vulture populations. In our study area, transhumant sheep were reduced by 62% in the last 15 years and only 20% of summer pastures are now occupied. The potential impact that the ongoing loss of transhumant activity could have on mountain ecosystem conservation should be assessed and taken into account by the new European Common Agricultural Policy.     

Seasonally dependent impacts of grazing on soil nitrogen mineralization and linkages to ecosystem functioning in Inner Mongolia grassland

Previous studies have suggested grazing may alter nitrogen (N) cycling of grasslands by accelerating or decelerating soil net N mineralization. The important mechanisms controlling these fluxes remain controversial, and more importantly, the consequences on carbon storage and site productivity remain uncertain. Here we present results on the seasonal patterns of soil inorganic N pools and net N mineralization and their linkages to ecosystem functioning from a grazing experiment in the Inner Mongolia grassland, which has been maintained for five years with 7 levels of grazing intensity (0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 6.0, 7.5, and 9.0 sheep ha⁻¹). Net N mineralization and nitrification rates were determined using an in situ soil core incubation method. Our findings demonstrated that, in the non-growing season, the net N mineralization rate was reduced by 181% in the lightly and moderately grazed plots (1.5-4.5 sheep ha⁻¹) and by 147% in the heavily grazed plots (6.0-9.0 sheep ha⁻¹), and the net N immobilization was observed in all grazed treatments. In the early growing season, however, it was increased by 107% in the lightly and moderately grazed plots and by 128% in the heavily grazed plots. In the peak growing season, grazing diminished the net mineralization rate by 71% in the lightly and moderately grazed plots and 108% in the heavily grazed plots. The seasonally dependent effects of grazing on soil inorganic N pools and net N mineralization were strongly mediated by grazing-induced changes in soil temperature and moisture, with soil moisture being predominant in the peak growing season. Grazing alterations of soil inorganic N and net N mineralization were closely linked to the changes in aboveground primary productivity, biomass N allocation, N use efficiency, and soil total nitrogen. Based upon the five year study, we conclude that grazing at moderate to high intensities is unsustainable in terms of productivity and soil N cycling and storage in these systems.     

生态修复措施对干旱半干旱地区生态系统服务影响研究——以河北坝上地区为例

为了揭示生态修复措施对干旱半干旱地区生态系统服务的影响,以对生态可持续发展提供决策参考,基于典型的干旱半干旱地区——河北坝上地区2000年、2018年土地利用数据以及4种与生态修复措施对应的情景,结合InVEST模型分析了生态修复措施对该区3个重要的生态系统服务(水源涵养、生境质量、碳储量)的影响。结果显示:(1) 2000—2018年坝上地区土地利用变化以草地大量缩减以及林地显著扩张为主(>500 km²),期间,水源涵养量下降7.03%,碳储量、生境质量分别增长2.82%,1.29%;(2)相比林地缓冲带、植树造林情景,开垦荒地和综合发展情景对上述3个生态系统服务的提高更为显著;(3)水源涵养、碳储量均与生境质量呈较强协同作用(r>0.42),碳储量与水源涵养呈较弱协同作用(r<0.24)。综上分析,生态修复措施能够提高坝上地区生态系统服务的供给,但以造林为主的生态修复方式在干旱半干旱地区仍需谨慎实施。     

Acari (mite) assemblages under plantations of bluegum, Eucalyptus globulus, in southwestern Australia

Farm forestry, in particular the planting of exotic bluegums Eucalyptus globulus, is a strategy increasingly used in southwestern Australia to mitigate the damaging effects of land clearing and to improve agricultural productivity. At the same time, such agroforestry systems have the potential to at least partially impede the biodiversity decline associated with habitat destruction and agriculture. The soil/litter habitat, an important repository of biodiversity in terrestrial systems, is one of the habitats most affected by clearing and conventional agricultural practices. Within this habitat, free-living mites are one of the most diverse and abundant animal groups contributing significantly to key ecosystem functions. This study compares the soil and litter mite assemblages of 7-year-old E. globulus plantations with those of adjacent native forest and pasture sites. The assemblages associated with E. globulus were substantially more diverse than those of the pasture soils but well below that of the native forest. Particularly low densities of oribatid mites were observed in the plantation sites. We suggest that the young plantation age, the exotic nature of the plantation species, and the homogeneous, mono-specific litter all contributed to limit the potential for these plantations to enhance mite biodiversity.     

Habitat use of ponies and cattle foraging together in a coastal dune area

Grazing by large ungulates has been chosen as a management tool in scrub-dominated dune reserves at the Belgian coast. Due to morphological and physiological differences between cattle and ponies, differences in foraging behaviour and habitat use are expected, and these may result in a different impact on the spatially heterogeneous and nutrient-limited ecosystem. Grazing behaviour and habitat use of Shetland ponies and Highland cattle, grazing together in a coastal dune area (60 ha) were investigated at various levels of the foraging hierarchy (habitat, vegetation type, sward height and diet). Habitat use overlap was high in all seasons; both cattle and pony spent most of their grazing time in the grass-dominated habitat. However, Shetland ponies concentrated their grazing activity more on the grass-dominated habitat than did cattle. Cattle spent a greater proportion of their grazing activity in woodland and scrub, compared to the ponies. Foraging activity in woodland and scrub is strongly influenced by season. Within the grass-dominated habitat both species preferred foraging in the grasslands and avoided open vegetation and moss dunes. Within the grasslands, cattle grazed less on the short swards than did ponies. Both cattle and ponies predominantly foraged on graminoids, though there are minor differences between both species and among seasons. Browsing of woody plants occurred only by cattle. Where grazing management has been implemented to maintain dune grasslands and to avoid further invasion by scrub, a combination of cattle and ponies appears to be adequate. Ponies are suitable for maintaining grasslands, but they have no impact on invading scrub. Cattle have an impact on scrub development, both by direct consumption of various shrub species and by opening initially closed scrub.     

山东沿海生态系统服务协同与权衡的空间格局及驱动力

提升区域生态保护效能,可为区域生态治理科学决策提供政策依据,以山东省沿海地区为研究区,使用InVEST模型和CASA模型测度产水服务、土壤保持、植被固碳和生物多样性的时空演变,借助差异比较法探究生态系统服务协同权衡的时空分异机制,进一步利用多尺度地理加权回归(MGWR)剖析了自然因素和人类活动因素对协同权衡的影响。结果表明：(1) 2018年研究区产水服务、生物多样性的均值为605.27 mm/a, 0.28,2010—2018年总量递增速率分别为0.21 mm/a, 0.23;土壤保持、植被固碳的均值为0.000 73 t/(hm²·a),537.56 gC/(m²·a),2010—2018年总量递减速率分别为0.62 t/(hm²·a),2.1 gC/(m²·a)。(2) 2010—2018年,生态系统服务的协同权衡具有显著的空间异质性,产水服务分别与土壤保持、生物多样性表现为强权衡弱协同;植被固碳分别与产水服务、土壤保持、生物多样性表现为强协同弱权衡。(3)产水服务、土壤保持、植被固碳三者存在...     

Disentangling the contributions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to soil multifunctionality

Soil multifunctionality represents a range of soil processes driven by the interactions between soil abiotic and biotic components. As a group of ubiquitous fungi that form mutualistic symbiotic associations with a vast array of terrestrial plants, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi may play a critical role in maintaining soil multifunctionality, but the characteristics of their contributions remain to be unraveled. This mini review aims to disentangle the contributions of AM fungi to soil multifunctionality. We provide a framework of concepts about AM fungi making crucial contributions to maintaining multiple soil functions, including primary productivity, nutrient cycling, water regulation and purification, carbon and climate regulation, habitat for biodiversity, disease and pest control, and pollutant degradation and detoxification, via a variety of pathways, particularly contributing to soil and plant health. This review contends that AM fungi, as a keystone component of soil microbiome, can govern soil multifunctionality, ultimately promoting ecosystem services.     

Hydrology in a patterned landscape is co-engineered by soil-disturbing animals and biological crusts

Water redistribution has a profound influence on dryland ecosystem function. This hydrological function is largely regulated by ecosystem engineers including biological soil crusts (biocrusts) which produce run-off, and burrowing animals, such as the greater bilby, whose pits capture water. We estimated the relative importance of these two ecosystem engineers in determining infiltration rates in a system where dune slopes shed water to adjacent interdune swales to maximize overall productivity. Also, we determined which biocrust property was most hydrologically important: total cover, composition, patch aggregation or spatial heterogeneity. While both biocrusts and burrowing animals equally affected the overall infiltration through macro- and micropores (under ponding), only biocrusts were important for the infiltration specifically via micropores (under tension). Of the studied biocrust properties, community composition was the strongest influence such that the greater the prevalence of early successional biocrust patches, the greater the infiltration rate. Greater total cover of biocrusts reduced infiltration, and the spatial properties were relatively unimportant. Although bilbies and biocrusts comparably influenced infiltration under ponding at the microscale, realistic cover of bilby pits at the landscape scale is unlikely to strongly impair the hydrological function of dunes. Reintroduction of the endangered bilby may enhance nutrient cycling and plant recruitment via its seed and resource capturing pits, without a concomitant disruption of hydrological function. In contrast, removal of biocrusts caused by, e.g., livestock trampling, is expected to strongly enhance infiltration in the run-off areas, strongly reducing ecosystem productivity at the landscape scale.     

Benefits Derived from Rehabilitating a Degraded Semi‐Arid Rangeland in Private Enclosures in West Pokot County,Kenya

Rehabilitating degraded rangelands using enclosures offers various benefits to agro‐pastoral households. However, enclosure benefits cannot be generalized as there are variations across dryland ecosystems and societies. This study assessed the qualitative and quantitative benefits derived from rehabilitating degraded rangelands using private enclosures in Chepareria, West Pokot County, Kenya. Dry‐season grazing reserves, healthier livestock, improved livestock productivity, easier livestock management, food security, reduced animal losses, ecosystem services, land ownership, independence and improved standard of living were the main qualitative benefits from private enclosures identified. Quantitative benefits were manifested through various enclosure enterprise combinations, sale of enclosure marketable products and adoption of alternative income generating activities. They included the sale of livestock and livestock products, maize, wood cutting, grass cuttings, contractual grazing, grass seeds, poultry products, fruits and honey, amongst others. Livestock production directly accounts for 42·4% of the total enclosure income and is the main source of livelihood in Chepareria. There was a significant trend of increasing total enclosure income with enclosure acreage (p ≤ 0·05) while enclosure age was insignificant. Enclosures cushion households against climatic shocks such as drought by providing additional flexibility in land, fodder, livestock management and the uptake of various income generating activities. We conclude that enclosures have the potential of contributing to resilience as attested from the benefits reported in this study. However, private enclosure tradeoffs such income differentiation, reduced communal land and conflict have implications on how the ecological and socio‐economic aspects may be impacted as the establishment of private enclosures in Chepareria continues. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Plant community functional shifts in response to livestock grazing in intermountain depressional wetlands in British Columbia, Canada

Wetlands are ecologically and economically important ecosystems with high conservation value. Although wetland vegetation is strongly determined by abiotic factors, grazing disturbance may also be an important influence on this community. We evaluated the effects of livestock grazing on wetland vegetation in marsh and wet meadow zones in intermountain depressional wetlands in the southern interior of British Columbia, Canada. We sampled marshes and wet meadows in 36 wetlands along a grazing intensity gradient ranging from fully fenced and ungrazed wetlands to unfenced wetlands heavily grazed by livestock. The amount of bare ground was used as a surrogate measure of the intensity of livestock grazing. Vegetation community structure and composition was strongly associated with grazing intensity. Increased livestock grazing favored shorter-lived and smaller plants; conversely, the frequency of tall and rhizomatous species, which constitute the dominant plant species in these systems, declined with higher livestock use. The effects of grazing were more pronounced in the marsh than in the wet meadow. Associations between species richness and grazing differed between zones: native and exotic species richness showed a unimodal response in the marsh while in the wet meadow exotic richness increased and native richness showed no response. The relationship between exotic frequency and grazing was also inconsistent between zones, with a negative association in the marsh and a positive but weak association in the wet meadow. Grazing-related changes in vegetation along the grazing intensity gradient were substantial and may affect the habitat value of these wetlands for dependent wildlife such as breeding waterfowl.