Behavior of carbon dioxide and other volatiles on Mars

We have found that a rather simple thermal model of the Martian surface, in combination with current observations of the atmospheric composition, points strongly toward the conclusion that the polar caps of Mars consist almost entirely of frozen CO(2). This study was based upon the following principal assumptions. 1) Carbon dioxide is a major constituent of the Martian atmosphere. 2) The blanketing effect of the atmosphere is small, and due principally to the absorption band of CO(2) near 15 microns. 3) Lateral and convective heat transfer by the atmosphere is negligible. 4) The far-infrared emissivity of the Martian soil and of solid CO(2) are near unity. 5) The reflectivities of the soil and of solid CO(2) in the visible part of the spectrum are about 0.15 and 0.65, respectively. 6) Values for soil conductivity, density, and specific heat are those characteristic of powdered minerals at low gas pressure. 7) Water is a minor constituent of the Martian atmosphere, the maximum total amount in the atmosphere being 10 to 30 X 1O(-4) g cm(-2). In addition, several simplifications were made, which might have significant effects but should not alter our principal conclusions. Among these are the following. 1) Local blanketing or snowfall effects due to clouds or polar haze were ignored. 2) Dark and light areas were not differentiated in this study, although Sinton and Strong (6) have observed temperature differences between such areas. 3) The effects of local topography and microrelief were neglected. We believe that these must have quite significant effects at the higher latitudes, especially in connection with the evaporation of the remanent south polar cap. 4) Variation of reflectivity with angle of incidence of the sunlight was neglected. 5) Temperature dependence of soil conductivity and specific heat was ignored. 6) Effects of saturation of the soil by ice upon the thermal properties of the soil were neglected. Although in our main investigation we used certain specific values for the various relevant parameters, we also tested the effects of moderate changes in these quantities. Specifically, the soil conductivity was varied by a factor of 3, the albedo and emissivity of the surface were changed by 15 to 20 percent, and the effects of a gross amount of atmospheric blanketing were studied, as described. Only the last of these variations had any significant effect on the model, and other results of the atmospheric blanketing were in disagreement with other physical observations of the planet. Consequently, we find it difficult to avoid the conclusion that CO(2) must condense in large amounts relative to H(2)0. The main conclusions indicated by this study are the following. 1) The atmosphere and frost caps of Mars represent a single system with CO(2) as the only active phase. 2) The appearance and disappearance of the polar caps are adequately explained on the presumption that they are composed almost entirely of solid CO(2) with perhaps an occasional thin coating of water ice. 3) If the currently reported water-vapor observations are correct, water-ice permafrost probably exists under large regions of the planet at polar and temperate latitudes. 4) The geochemically anomalous enrichment of CO(2) relative to N(2) in the present Martian atmosphere may be a result of selective trapping of CO(2) in the solid phase at and under the surface. 5) If the basic evaporation and condensation mechanisms for CO(2) and H(2)O discussed in this article are correct, the possible migration of volatile organic compounds away from the warm temperate regions of the planet and their possible accumulation in the polar regions need to be carefully considered.     

Polar Volatiles on Mars--Theory versus Observation: Excess solid carbon dioxide is probably present in the north residual cap

The residual frost caps of Mars are probably water-ice. They may be the source of the water vapor associated with seasonal polar hoods. A permanent reservoir of solid CO(2) is also probably present within the north residual cap and may comprise a mass of CO(2) some two to five times that of the present atmosphere of Mars. The martian atmospheric pressure is probably regulated by the temperature of the reservoir and not by the annual heat balance of exposed solid CO(2) (37). The present reservoir temperature presumably reflects a long-term average of the polar heat balance. The question of a large permanent north polar cap is reexamined in light of the Mariner 9 data. The lower general elevation of the north polar region compared to the south and the resulting occurrence in the north of a permanent CO(2) deposit are probably responsible for the differences in size and shape of the two residual caps. The details of the processes involved are less apparent, however. It might be argued that the stability of water-ice deposits depends on both insolation and altitude. The present north and south residual caps should be symmetrically located with respect to such a hypothetical stability field. However, the offset of the south cap from the geometrical pole, the non-symmetrical outline of the north cap, and the apparently uniform thickness of the thin, widespread water-ice all argue against control by simple solid-vapor equilibrium of water under present environmental conditions. We think that the present location of the water-ice may reflect, in part, the past location of the permanent CO(2) reservoir. The extreme stability of polar water-ice deposits increases the likelihood that past environmental conditions may be recorded there. Detailed information on elevations in the vicinity of the residual caps is needed before we can further elucidate the nature and history of the residual caps. This, along with measurements of polar infrared emission, should be given high priority in future missions to Mars. Two conclusions follow from the limitation of the mass of solid CO(2) on Mars at present to two to five times the mass of CO(2) in the atmosphere. If all of this CO(2) was entirely sublimated into the atmosphere as a result of hypothetical astronomical or geophysical effects, the average surface pressure would increase to 15 to 30 mbar. Although such a change would have considerable significance for eolian erosion and transportation, there seems to be little possibility that a sufficiently earthlike atmosphere could result for liquid water to become an active erosional agent, as postulated by Milton (38). The pressure broadening required for a green-house effect requires at least 10 to 20 times more pressure (39). If liquid water was ever active in modifying the martian surface, it must have been at an earlier epoch, before the present, very stable CO(2)/H(2)O system developed. There can be no intermittent earthlike episodes now. Furthermore, the present abundance of CO(2) on Mars may be an indicator of the cumulative evolution of volatiles to the surface of the planet (40). Thus, even the possibility of an earlier earth-like episode is dimmed. On Mars, the total CO(2) definitely outgassed has evidently been about 60 +/- 20 g/cm(2). On the earth, about 70 +/- 30 kg/cm(2) of CO(2) have been released to the surface (41). Hence, the total CO(2) devolved by Mars per unit area is about 0.1 percent of that evolved by the earth. Thus, the observational limits we place on solid CO(2) presently located under the north residual cap also may constitute considerable constraints on the total differentiation and devolatilization of the planet. If they are valid, it would seem unlikely that Mars has devolatilized at all like the earth, or ever experienced an earthlike environment on its surface.     

Massive CO₂ ice deposits sequestered in the south polar layered deposits of Mars

Shallow Radar soundings from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter reveal a buried deposit of carbon dioxide (CO(2)) ice within the south polar layered deposits of Mars with a volume of 9500 to 12,500 cubic kilometers, about 30 times that previously estimated for the south pole residual cap. The deposit occurs within a stratigraphic unit that is uniquely marked by collapse features and other evidence of interior CO(2) volatile release. If released into the atmosphere at times of high obliquity, the CO(2) reservoir would increase the atmospheric mass by up to 80%, leading to more frequent and intense dust storms and to more regions where liquid water could persist without boiling.     

Mars' south polar Ar enhancement: a tracer for south polar seasonal meridional mixing

The gamma ray spectrometer on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft measured an enhancement of atmospheric argon over southern high latitudes during autumn followed by dissipation during winter and spring. Argon does not freeze at temperatures normal for southern winter (approximately 145 kelvin) and is left in the atmosphere, enriched relative to carbon dioxide (CO2), as the southern seasonal cap of CO2 frost accumulates. Calculations of seasonal transport of argon into and out of southern high latitudes point to meridional (north-south) mixing throughout southern winter and spring.     

Global distribution of neutrons from Mars: results from Mars odyssey

Global distributions of thermal, epithermal, and fast neutron fluxes have been mapped during late southern summer/northern winter using the Mars Odyssey Neutron Spectrometer. These fluxes are selectively sensitive to the vertical and lateral spatial distributions of H and CO2 in the uppermost meter of the martian surface. Poleward of +/-60 degrees latitude is terrain rich in hydrogen, probably H2O ice buried beneath tens of centimeter-thick hydrogen-poor soil. The central portion of the north polar cap is covered by a thick CO2 layer, as is the residual south polar cap. Portions of the low to middle latitudes indicate subsurface deposits of chemically and/or physically bound H2O and/or OH.     

Mariner 9 television reconnaissance of Mars and its satellites: preliminary results

At orbit insertion on 14 November 1971 the Martian surface was largely obscured by a dust haze with an extinction optical depth that ranged from near unity in the south polar region to probably greater than 2 over most of the planet. The only features clearly visible were the south polar cap, one dark, spot in Nix Olympica, and three dark spots in the Tharsis region. During the third week the atmosphere began to clear and surface visibility improved, but contrasts remained a fraction of their normal value. Each of the dark spots that apparently protrude through most of the dust-filled atmosphere has a crater or crater complex in its center. The craters are rimless and have featureless floors that, in the crater complexes, are at different levels. The largest crater within the southernmost spot is approximately 100 kilometers wide. The craters apparently were formed by subsidence and resemble terrestrial calderas. The south polar cap has a regular margin, suggsting very flat topography. Two craters outside the cap have frost on their floors; an apparent crater rim within the cap is frost free, indicating preferentia loss of frost from elevated ground. If this is so then the curvilinear streaks, which were frost covered in 1969 and are now clear of frost, may be low-relief ridges. Closeup pictures of Phobos and Deimos show that Phobos is about 25 +/-5 by 21 +/-1 kilometers and Deimos is about 13.5 +/- 2 by 12.0 +/-0.5 kilometers. Both have irregular shapes and are highly cratered, with some craters showing raised rims. The satellites are dark objects with geometric albedos of 0.05.     

新疆哈密区域寒潮天气统计特征

根据寒潮标准,对新疆东部哈密区域50年的寒潮天气进行统计。结果表明：新疆哈密地区寒潮最早出现在9月2～3日,最晚出现在5月22～23日;四季中春季出现最多,为101次,秋季41次,冬季27次;50年来哈密地区寒潮天气过程出现次数总体呈现减少趋势;哈密地区北部寒潮出现频次、强度高于哈密地区南部,初寒潮北部早于南部,终寒湖北部晚于南部;寒潮入侵路径主要有4条：西方路径、西北路径、北方路径和超极地路径。     

The role of carbon dioxide during the onset of Antarctic glaciation

Earth's modern climate, characterized by polar ice sheets and large equator-to-pole temperature gradients, is rooted in environmental changes that promoted Antarctic glaciation ~33.7 million years ago. Onset of Antarctic glaciation reflects a critical tipping point for Earth's climate and provides a framework for investigating the role of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO(2)) during major climatic change. Previously published records of alkenone-based CO(2) from high- and low-latitude ocean localities suggested that CO(2) increased during glaciation, in contradiction to theory. Here, we further investigate alkenone records and demonstrate that Antarctic and subantarctic data overestimate atmospheric CO(2) levels, biasing long-term trends. Our results show that CO(2) declined before and during Antarctic glaciation and support a substantial CO(2) decrease as the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation, consistent with model-derived CO(2) thresholds.     

地理地形因素对山西近50年初霜冻变化的影响(英文)

基于1961~2010年山西62个测站逐日最低地温资料,分析了山西初霜冻变化特征,结果表明:(1)山西1961~2010年平均初霜冻日为10月7日;其分布总体表现为北早南晚,平均初霜冻日与海拔高度和纬度呈显著的负相关,相关系数分别为-0.85和-0.82。(2)M-K突变检验表明,山西近50年大部分站点的初霜日都有突变发生,主要集中在20世纪80~90年代,其分布表现为中部偏晚、北部和南部偏早的特征;突变年份与海拔高度和纬度均为负相关,相关系数分别为-0.45和-0.51。(3)大部分站点初霜冻日为推后趋势,推后幅度较大的地区集中在北部及中东部地区,提前较多的地区主要位于南部及中南部的部分地区;趋势变化与海拔高度和纬度均为负相关,相关系数分别为-0.30和-0.37。(4)轻微、中度和重度初霜冻出现的概率分别为:62%~82%、6%~26%和4%~22%,出现最大的区域分别为:中南部和东北部、中部和北中部、西部和北中部;海拔高度与不同等级初霜冻发生概率的相关都不大,纬度对初霜冻发生概率的影响都大于海拔高度。     

黑龙江省空中水资源的时空分布特征

应用黑龙江省80个气象台站1960～2007年的逐日气象资料,分析了黑龙江省整层大气可降水量和自然降水效率的时空分布特征。结果表明,黑龙江省大气可降水量分布区域差异较大,总体上呈现由南向北递减的分布趋势;自然降水率分布存在明显的差异,大兴安岭北部、小兴安岭山脉及其南端年平均降水效率相对较高,大庆、齐齐哈尔南部、绥化南部较小;全省年大气可降水量存在不规则波动,年际变化不大;年大气可降水量主要集中在夏秋两季,占全年的78.2%;大气可降水量的月际变化呈单峰结构,全年的整层大气可降水量主要集中在5～10月,占全年的84.2%。     

Influence of carbonic anhydrase activity in terrestrial vegetation on the 18O content of atmospheric CO2

The oxygen-18 (18O) content of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is an important indicator of CO2 uptake on land. It has generally been assumed that during photosynthesis, oxygen in CO2 reaches isotopic equilibrium with oxygen in 18O-enriched water in leaves. We show, however, large differences in the activity of carbonic anhydrase (which catalyzes CO2 hydration and 18O exchange in leaves) among major plant groups that cause variations in the extent of 18O equilibrium (theta(eq)). A clear distinction in theta(eq) between C3 trees and shrubs, and C4 grasses makes atmospheric C18OO a potentially sensitive indicator to changes in C3 and C4 productivity. We estimate a global mean theta(eq) value of approximately 0.8, which reasonably reconciles inconsistencies between 18O budgets of atmospheric O2 (Dole effect) and CO2.     

Composition and physical properties of Enceladus' surface

Observations of Saturn's satellite Enceladus using Cassini's Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer instrument were obtained during three flybys of Enceladus in 2005. Enceladus' surface is composed mostly of nearly pure water ice except near its south pole, where there are light organics, CO2, and amorphous and crystalline water ice, particularly in the region dubbed the "tiger stripes." An upper limit of 5 precipitable nanometers is derived for CO in the atmospheric column above Enceladus, and 2% for NH3 in global surface deposits. Upper limits of 140 kelvin (for a filled pixel) are derived for the temperatures in the tiger stripes.     

基于"湿岛"效应的六盘山自然保护区降水差异影响分析

选取1975—2015年六盘山自然保护区附近各气象站和保护区内外自动气象观测站的降水资料,利用EXCEL、SPSS统计软件,统计保护区各站多年降水量平均值,并对比分析不同观测站点的降水差异。结果表明,保护区降水量的分布受地形影响很大,夏季东坡迎风坡比西坡北风坡降水量多;降水量分布有南多北少和东多西少的特点。在海拔2 600 m以下地区是随着地势增高而降水量增多,在2 600 m以上地区随地势增高而降水量减少。降水有明显的季节特征,夏秋多、冬春少。     

Venus's southern polar vortex reveals precessing circulation

Initial images of Venus's south pole by the Venus Express mission have shown the presence of a bright, highly variable vortex, similar to that at the planet's north pole. Using high-resolution infrared measurements of polar winds from the Venus Express Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS) instrument, we show the vortex to have a constantly varying internal structure, with a center of rotation displaced from the geographic south pole by ~3 degrees of latitude and that drifts around the pole with a period of 5 to 10 Earth days. This is indicative of a nonsymmetric and varying precession of the polar atmospheric circulation with respect to the planetary axis.     

Infrared thermal mapping of the martian surface and atmosphere: first results

The Viking infrared thermal mapper measures the thermal emission of the martian surface and atmosphere and the total reflected sunlight. With the high resolution and dense coverage being achieved, planetwide thermal structure is apparent at large and small scales. The thermal behavior of the best-observed areas, the landing sites, cannot be explained by simple homogeneous models. The data contain clear indications for the relevance of additional factors such as detailed surface texture and the occurrence of clouds. Areas in the polar night have temperatures distinctly lower than the CO(2) condensation point at the surface pressure. This observation implies that the annual atmospheric condensation is less than previously assumed and that either thick CO(2) clouds exist at the 20-kilometer level or that the polar atmosphere is locally enriched by noncondensable gases.     

一次特强霜冻天气过程诊断分析

以≤-2.0℃地面最低温度作为霜冻指标,利用河西走廊中西部10个气象观测站点的实时观测资料和相应的数值预报资料,采用现代天气诊断方法,对2004年5月3～4日特强霜冻天气过程进行了探讨分析。针对霜冻天气发生发展的特点,在剖析环流背景的基础上,重点分析了500 hPa的v风场及其廓线;总能量的平流变化等物理量。结果表明,北风带的东移南扩是造成此次大范围霜冻天气的关键因子,总能量的持续偏低使得强霜冻的持续时间延长。     

石羊河流域气候与主要农业气象灾害变化特征

基于石羊河流域气象站近35年气象和主要农作物种植资料,探讨流域农业气候变化和农业生产、水文变化及其对作物布局、种植的影响。结果表明,≥0℃、≥10℃积温增加线性倾向率中北部大于南部,热量资源增加明显。年降水量以4.719mm/10a线性倾向率在增加,而年径流量以0.274亿m^3/10a的速率在减少。气候生产力以134.62kg/（hm^2.10a）的速率增加。春末夏初旱局部增加明显,无霜期延长,沙尘暴减少显著,大风南部增加、中北部减少。农业气候变化使春小麦种植区域向海拔较高区推进,播种期提前,生育期缩短,对产量形成不利,而对喜温作物玉米、棉花和酿酒葡萄等提高产量和品质有利。     

辽宁省建昌地区春播期水热资源气候特征分析

采用气候倾向率、春旱指数等方法,分析了建昌春播期降水和气温的变化特征。结果表明,近50年（19602009年）建昌春播期热量资源在增加,平均气温趋势升高1.25℃;19902009年较19611980年平均气温升高1.00℃;气温稳定通过≥10℃初日变化稳定;终霜日期趋势提前4 d结束,变化幅度由31 d缩短至19 d,趋于稳定。降水量存在增加趋势,降水量变率过大对春播及苗期生长不利;春旱频率较大影响春季播种;重旱、偏旱年有30年,占60%;近20年（19902009年）重春旱频率较之前略有增加。适宜播种期在4月15-20日     

辽宁西北部霜冻特征变化及致灾风险强度研究

霜冻事件是与农业相关的最严重的极端事件之一。研究霜冻的变化趋势和强度变化有利于提高人们对霜冻的认识,对农业结构调整有一定的参考价值。利用朝阳、阜新地区1951—2020年气象资料和农作物苗期、果树开花及成熟期物候资料,应用气候诊断分析方法,分析霜冻发生时间和频率等,研究辽宁西北部霜冻致灾风险强度。结果表明：5月1日之后的春季霜冻致灾强度>80%,终霜冻致灾风险强度平均为41.6%,重度致灾(70%<ST≤100%)概率为20.0%;因终霜日期以-0.438 d/10 a倾向率提前,春霜冻致灾风险强度线性下降9.4个百分点,而2001—2020年春季霜冻致灾风险强度平均下降5.2个百分点。9月15日之前的秋季霜冻致灾强度>80%,初霜冻致灾风险强度平均为27.7%,重度致灾(70%<ST≤100%)概率为5.7%;因初霜日期以1.734 d/10 a倾向率明显后推,致灾风险强度线性下降34.0个百分点,而2001—2020年秋季霜冻致灾风险强度平均下降24.9个百分点。年度霜冻致灾风险强度线性下降25.6个百分点;2001—2020年下降17.1个百分点。结果说明受气候变暖的影响,辽宁西北地区年度霜冻致灾风险强度总体在减弱,而终霜日提前趋势不稳定,调整作物播种期需谨慎。1991—2020年初霜冻致灾风险强度下降明显,因此,秋季热量资源存在开发利用空间。     

Seasonal erosion and restoration of Mars' northern polar dunes

Despite radically different environmental conditions, terrestrial and martian dunes bear a strong resemblance, indicating that the basic processes of saltation and grainfall (sand avalanching down the dune slipface) operate on both worlds. Here, we show that martian dunes are subject to an additional modification process not found on Earth: springtime sublimation of Mars' CO(2) seasonal polar caps. Numerous dunes in Mars' north polar region have experienced morphological changes within a Mars year, detected in images acquired by the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Dunes show new alcoves, gullies, and dune apron extension. This is followed by remobilization of the fresh deposits by the wind, forming ripples and erasing gullies. The widespread nature of these rapid changes, and the pristine appearance of most dunes in the area, implicates active sand transport in the vast polar erg in Mars' current climate.