Acclimation of Litopenaeus vannamei Postlarvae to Low Salinity: Influence of Age, Salinity Endpoint, and Rate of Salinity Reduction

Abstract.— Inland culture of Liropenaeus vannarnei in low salinity well waters is currently conducted on a small scale in a few areas in the U.S. To successfully rear shrimp in low salinity water, postlarvae (PL) must be transferred from high-salinity larval rearing systems to low-salinity growout conditions. To determine effective transfer methods, a series of experiments were conducted under controlled conditions to evaluate the influence of PL age, rate of acclimation, and salinity endpoint on 48 h survival of shrimp. Three age classes of L. vannurnei PL (10, 15, and 20-d) were acclimated from a salinity of 23 ppt to treatment endpoint salinities of 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 ppt. Survival of PL₁₀ acclimated to 0, 1, or 2 ppt salinity was significantly lower than survival of PL acclimated to salinities of 4, 8, and 12 ppt. Survival of PL, and PL₂₀ shrimp was only reduced for the 0 ppt salinity treatment, thus indicating a clear effect of age on salinity tolerance. The same age classes of PL were acclimated from 23 ppt to final salinity endpoints of I or 4 ppt at three different rates of salinity reduction: low, 19%/h; medium, 258/h, and high, 478/h. Survival was not significantly influenced by the acclimation rates for any of the three PL age classes. As in the fixed rate experiments, survival of the 10-d-old PL was significantly lower for shrimp acclimated to the 1 ppt endpoint compared to the 4 ppt endpoint. Under the reported conditions, age appears to influence PL tolerance to a salinity end-point. A 10-d-old PL can be acclimated to 4 ppt with good survival, whereas 15- and 20-d-old PL can be acclimated to a salinity of 1 ppt with good survivals.     

Effect of Low Salinity on Growth and Survival of Postlarvae and Juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei

The effect of low salinity on survival and growth of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei was examined in the laboratory due to the interest of raising shrimp inland at low salinities. In three separate experiments, individual L. vannamei postlarvae (∼ 0.1 g) were cultured at salinities of either 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, or 3 ppt ( N = 5 or 10/treatment) for 18 to 40 d at 30 C in individual 360-mL containers. In each experiment controls of 0 and 30 ppt were run. There was no postlarval survival at salinities < 2 ppt. Survival was significantly different ( P < 0.01) at 2 ppt (20%) compared to 30 ppt (80%). Growth was also significantly different ( P < 0.01) at 2 and 3 ppt compared to 30 ppt (416%, 475%, and 670%, respectively). A fourth experiment compared juveniles (∼ 8 g) and postlarvae (∼ 0.05 and 0.35 g). Shrimp were cultured at salinities of 0, 2, 4, and 30 ppt for 40 d at 25 C, in individual 360-mL and 6-L containers ( N = 7/treatment). There was no postlarval survival at < 2 ppt. Postlarval survival at 4 ppt (86%) was not significantly different (P > 0.05) from 30 ppt (100%). Juveniles exhibited better survival at lower salinities (100% at 2 ppt) than 0.05 and 0.35 g postlarvae (29% and 14% respectively, at 2 ppt). The effects of salinity on growth varied with sizdage. Final growth of 0.05 g postlarvae at 2 ppt (693%) was significantly less ( P < 0.01) than at 4 ppt (1085%) and 30 ppt (1064%). Growth of 0.35 g postlarvae was significantly less ( P < 0.01) for 4 ppt (175%) than for 30 ppt (264%). There was no growth data for juveniles (8 g). It appears from these experiments that the culture of L. vannamei poses risks when performed in salinities less than 2 ppt.     

Ovarian maturation of wild Farfantepenaeus paulensis in relation to histological and visual changes

The present study describes the ovarian development stages of wild Farfantepenaeus paulensis (Pérez‐Farfante) through the combined observation of histological and visual characteristics. Twenty‐five females (61.8±2.4 g) were captured in 35–40‐m deep waters off southern Brazil (27°S). The females were grouped according to the size and shape of their ovary and then killed. The colour of the fresh ovary was compared with a chromatic scale catalogue. Analysis of the histological sections of each ovary determined the morphological characteristics, size and frequency of the different oocyte types. Based on these characteristics, four distinct stages of ovarian maturation are proposed: stage I (immature), characterized by the presence of small basophilic oocytes (52.1±19.9 μm) and ovary colour ranging from translucent to creamy; stage II (developing), with yolky oocytes (YOs) (144.2±26.1 μm) and a light green colour; stage III (mature), presenting large YOs but with cortical rods (235.0±30.2 μm) and an olive‐brown colour; and stage IV (spent), with atretic oocytes and the same ovary colour pattern as stage I. The gonadosomatic index ranged from 1.6 (stage IV) to 13.7% (stage III) and was closely related to the different ovarian maturation stages. The observation of visual features coupled with histological characteristics was found to represent a reliable procedure to evaluate the ovarian maturation of F. paulensis.     

水温和盐度对大菱鲆稚鱼存活的影响

采用突然改变温度和盐度的方法,试验不同水温和盐度对大菱鲆稚鱼存活的影响。试验结果表明,水温为15.0~18.0℃、盐度为28~32,大菱鲆稚鱼存活率最高;用曲线回归的方法求出24 h内存活率与温度的关系式,其回归方程为y=-0.5506x2 18.4970x-53.13,依此得到大菱鲆稚鱼的高、低起始致死温度为26.54℃和7.06℃。依同样方法得到24h内存活率与盐度的回归方程为y=-0.4353x2 23.4226x-213.81,高、低起始致死盐度为37.76和16.05。经t检验显著相关(P<0.01)。     

温度和盐度对墨吉明对虾（Fenneropenaeus meiguiensis）生长与存活的联合效应

采用中心复合设计(CCD)和响应曲面法(RSM),研究了温度(16–35℃)和盐度(5–29)对墨吉明对虾生长与存活的联合效应。结果显示,温度的一次效应和二次效应对墨吉明对虾的特定生长率和存活率具有显著影响(P<0.05);盐度的一次效应对墨吉明对虾的特定生长影响不显著(P>0.05),但对墨吉明对虾存活率的影响达到显著水平(P<0.05);盐度二次效应对特定生长率与存活率具有极显著影响(P<0.01);温度和盐度对墨吉明对虾的生长与存活不存在显著的交互作用(P>0.05)。采用中心复合设计建立了温度和盐度对墨吉明对虾特定生长率和存活率影响的模型方程,该方程的决定系数分别为0.9014、0.9631,校正系数分别为0.8310、0.9367,表明模型具有较好的拟合度,可用于预测墨吉明对虾特定生长率与存活率的变化。通过模型优化和验证实验,得出温度为26.6℃、盐度为15.5时,特定生长率和存活率均达到最大值,分别为1.296%,98.34%,其满意度为0.970。结果显示,墨吉明对虾在工厂化养殖过程中温度为26–27℃、盐度为15–16时,有利于墨吉明对虾的存活与生长。     

盐度和温度对中间球海胆摄食与存活的影响

在实验条件下，就不同盐度和温度对中间球海胆(Strongylocentrotus intermedius)摄食与存活的影响进行了观察。结果表明：20℃时的存活下限盐度为19；25℃时的存活下限盐度为26；21℃时，盐度22可致海胆停止摄食；在25℃的自然海水中，海胆能持续良好生存至少14d，但摄食停止；在28℃的自然海水中，海胆在48h内的死亡率为100％。     

Comparison of the Reproductive Performance of Similarly-Sized Wild and Captive Farfantepenaeus paulensis

The reproduction of wild-caught Farfantepenaeus paulensis in captivity has been successfully achieved since 1983. However, year-round supply of wild broodstock is costly and unpredictable. This study compares the reproductive performance of animals of similar size (females from 32–33 g and males from 19–21 g) but from different sources: estuary-caught juveniles reared indoors for 9 mo and wild-caught adults from shallow coastal waters. Groups of 20 males and 30 unilaterally eyestalk-ablated females were maintained for 60 d in four maturation tanks under controlled environmental conditions. A higher number of eggs per spawning event (78,414 ± 34,491) and total egg production (4,469,600) were observed for the wild females. Nevertheless, captive females produced a higher number of nauplii (1,788,259) due to their higher percentage of fertilized spawns. Therefore, within the size range of this study, the reproductive performance of estuary-caught F. paulensis juveniles over-wintered indoors was found to be equivalent to that of wild-caught females from shallow coastal waters.     

温度和盐度突变对近缘大眼剑水蚤存活率的影响

研究了温度和盐度的突变及温度、盐度突变的交互作用对近缘大眼剑水蚤24 h存活率的影响,结果表明:近缘大眼剑水蚤由20℃向高温突变的存活率较向低温突变的存活率高;由32.07向低盐度突变的存活率较向高度突变的存活率高.两因素突变的试验结果显示,温度、盐度突变对近缘大眼剑水蚤的作用极显著,温度和盐度突变的交互作用显著,盐度突变影响主要,温度突变影响次之,交互作用影响相比最小.     

温度、盐度对海捕口虾蛄暂养成活率的影响

本文通过海捕口虾蛄暂养的生产性试验,记录和分析在自然条件下不同温度和盐度对口虾蛄暂养成活率的影响,试验虾蛄均以100kg折算,以重量百分比反映成活率。结果表明浙南海捕口虾蛄暂养的最佳温度为4℃～17℃,最佳暂养盐度26‰-29‰。     

温度、盐度对海捕口虾蛄暂养成活率的影响水产增养殖

本文通过海捕口虾蛄暂养的生产性试验,记录和分析在自然条件下不同温度和盐度对口虾蛄暂养成活率的影响,试验虾蛄均以100 kg折算,以重量百分比反映成活率.结果表明浙南海捕口虾蛄暂养的最佳温度为4℃～17℃,最佳暂养盐度26‰～29‰.     

温度和盐度对墨吉明对虾(Fenneropenaeus meiguiensis)生长与存活的联合效应

采用中心复合设计(CCD)和响应曲面法(RSM),研究了温度(16–35℃)和盐度(5–29)对墨吉明对虾生长与存活的联合效应。结果显示,温度的一次效应和二次效应对墨吉明对虾的特定生长率和存活率具有显著影响(P<0.05);盐度的一次效应对墨吉明对虾的特定生长影响不显著(P>0.05),但对墨吉明对虾存活率的影响达到显著水平(P<0.05);盐度二次效应对特定生长率与存活率具有极显著影响(P<0.01);温度和盐度对墨吉明对虾的生长与存活不存在显著的交互作用(P>0.05)。采用中心复合设计建立了温度和盐度对墨吉明对虾特定生长率和存活率影响的模型方程,该方程的决定系数分别为0.9014、0.9631,校正系数分别为0.8310、0.9367,表明模型具有较好的拟合度,可用于预测墨吉明对虾特定生长率与存活率的变化。通过模型优化和验证实验,得出温度为26.6℃、盐度为15.5时,特定生长率和存活率均达到最大值,分别为1.296%,98.34%,其满意度为0.970。结果显示,墨吉明对虾在工厂化养殖过程中温度为26–27℃、盐度为15–16时,有利于墨吉明对虾的存活与生长。     

干露、盐度、温度变化对中华虎头蟹仔蟹的影响

采用单因子分析方法,在生化培养箱中设置5个干露梯度,15个盐度梯度及12个温度梯度,研究干露、盐度、温度变化对中华虎头蟹仔蟹存活及其活力的影响。试验结果表明,不同干露温度梯度下,随着温度的升高,时间的延长,仔蟹爬行、游动、钻沙能力不断减弱;在0、1、2、45、50盐度梯度下,24h后仔蟹成活率、活力下降明显;10～35℃温度梯度下,24h后成活率超过90%,能正常摄食、活动,其他温度试验组,随温度变化,仔蟹活力不断减弱至无法摄食活动。     

Digestive peptidases and proteinases in the midgut gland of the pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus paulensis (Crustacea, Decapoda, Penaeidae)

Proteases from the midgut gland of the Farfantepenaeus paulensis juveniles were assessed. Enzyme activity was determined using protease substrates and inhibitors. The effect of pH, temperature and calcium on proteolytic activity was assayed. Caseinolytic activity was analysed in substrate-sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Trypsin, chymotrypsin and leucine aminopeptidase activity was detected. Proteolytic activity was strongly inhibited by the specific trypsin inhibitors. Tosyl-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone inhibited 59.3% of chymotrypsin activity. The greatest trypsin-like activity occurred at pH 8.0 and 45 °C. Chymotrypsin-like activity reached maximal values at alkaline pH (7.2–9.0) and 55 °C. CaCl₂ did not increase trypsin-like activity, but rather inhibited it at concentrations of 30 (20%), 50 (30%) and 100 mM (50%). The substrate-SDS-PAGE zymogram revealed eight proteinase bands. Two possibly thermal-resistant (85 °C, 30 min) chymotrypsin isoforms were found, which were inhibited by phenyl-methyl-sulphonyl-fluoride. Aminopeptidase activity of enzyme extracts (Arg, Leu, Lys, Phe and Val) and the recommended concentrations of these essential amino acids in penaeid shrimp diets were positively correlated ( P <0.05). Beause protein digestion involves the combined action of different enzymes, adequate knowledge of shrimp digestion and enzyme characteristics is required for the assessment of the digestive potential of different feed sources and development of in vitro digestibility protocols.     

温度和盐度对星斑裸颊鲷胚胎发育和仔鱼存活的影响

研究了温度(22、24、26、28、30、32℃)和盐度(15、20、25、30、33、35、40、45)对星斑裸颊鲷胚胎发育和仔鱼存活的影响。试验结果表明,星斑裸颊鲷胚胎发育所需时间与水温呈负相关,适宜温度为22~32℃,最适为28~30℃;适宜盐度为20~40,最适为30~35。星斑裸颊鲷受精卵和初孵仔鱼在盐度低于25时沉于水底,大于25时浮于水面。24℃,不投饵仔鱼存活系数为14.57,仔鱼活力较好;盐度为33时,不投饵存活数值为22.8,仔鱼活力较好。     

盐度对鮸状黄姑鱼(Nibea miichthioides)胚胎发育和仔鱼成活的影响

本研究采用不同盐度的海水对(鱼免)状黄姑鱼受精卵的沉浮性、胚胎发育的孵化时间、孵化率、仔鱼的分布状态和成活率的影响进行研究。结果表明:(鱼免)状黄姑鱼受精卵在盐度26.9‰以下的海水呈沉性,在盐度40.7‰以上的海水呈浮性,盐度26.9‰～40.7‰则由沉性向浮性过渡。(鱼免)状黄姑鱼受精卵在盐度13.7‰～53.0‰均可孵化,但孵化适合盐度为26.9‰～40.7‰。从仔鱼的分布状态、活动情况、成活率等几方面综合分析、(鱼免)状黄姑鱼仔鱼的合适盐度为26.9—33.4‰。     

温度和盐度对扇贝“渤海红”稚贝存活和生长的互作效应

使用中心复合试验设计与响应曲面分析法研究温度(16~28℃)和盐度(22~34)两个因素对扇贝“渤海红”稚贝存活和生长的互作效应。试验结果显示,温度的一次效应、二次效应和盐度的二次效应对扇贝“渤海红”稚贝的存活率、壳长增长率和体质量增长率的影响达到极显著水平(P<0.01);盐度的一次效应、温度和盐度的互作效应对扇贝“渤海红”稚贝的存活率达到显著水平(P<0.05),但对稚贝的壳长增长率与体质量增长率的影响不显著(P>0.05)。存活率、稚贝的壳长增长率与体质量增长率的回归模型的相关系数分别为0.9696、0.9969、0.9966,校正系数分别为0.9391、0.9938、0.9932,预测系数分别为0.7622、0.9726、0.9662。3个模型均有较好的拟合度,可用于预测扇贝“渤海红”稚贝的存活率、壳长增长率和体质量增长率。经过软件优化,得到温度和盐度的共同影响下存活率、壳长增长率和体质量增长率的最优结果:温度22.65℃、盐度28.51时,存活率为95.33%,壳长增长率197.50μm/d,体质量增长率21.58 mg/d,其可靠性为0.975。     

Survival of Post‐larval Litopenaeus vannamei Following Acclimation to Low Salinity Waters at Different Temperatures

Temperature and salinity are two factors known to influence the growth potential and survival of the Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, acclimated to low salinity waters. In west Alabama, farmers suspect low water temperatures at stocking, in conjunction with low salinity and suboptimal ionic profiles, might be responsible for reduced survival and production at harvest. To determine the influence of temperature and salinity on post‐larval (PL) L. vannamei, a series of bioassays were conducted at the E.W. Shell Fisheries Research Station in Auburn, Alabama and Claude Peteet Mariculture Center in Gulf Shores, Alabama. PL L. vannamei of ages 11, 13, and 20 (PL₁₁, PL₁₃, and PL₂₀) were acclimated down to salinities of 12, 4, 2, 1, 0.5, and 0.2 ppt at different temperatures ranging from 17.6 to 24.0 C. During the acclimation bioassays survivals were assessed at 24 and 48 h. PL survival of the three age groups examined were significantly reduced at salinities of 1, 0.5, and 0.2 ppt. These results correspond well to those reported at higher temperatures confirming that across the tested temperature range salinity endpoint was the driving factor in determining survival and that suboptimal temperatures had a minimal influence on survival.     

盐度对漠斑牙鲆幼鱼存活、生长及摄食的影响

盐度对漠斑牙鲆幼鱼的存活的影响较小,将漠斑牙鲆幼鱼从盐度为32的海水直接放入盐度为24、16、8、0的水中观察48 h存活情况,仅盐度0组成活率为75%,其他盐度组均为100%.在盐度为32、24、16、8、0各试验组中,经1个月饲养,生长速度和饵料系数均无显著差异.盐度越低越有利于漠斑牙鲆白化个体康复正常体色.