Plant–soil interactions in wheat and coriander crops driving arthropod assemblies through volatile compounds

Arthropod assemblies are frequently determined by bottom-up interactions that include emission of organic volatile compounds. Therefore, changes in soil characteristics associated with land use history can influence the volatile emissions of plants affecting the structure of arthropod assemblies in croplands. This study aims (1) to study the relationships between soil degradation levels due to land-use history, and the change in particular soil chemical characteristics; (2) to analyze plant–soil interactions quantifying the effect of soil degradation on the production of biomass and grain yield of coriander and wheat crops, and on the production and chemical composition of volatile secondary metabolites in coriander grain; (3) to find the relationship between the analyzed plant–soil interactions and the emission of volatile signals affecting arthropod assemblies; and (4) to determine the relationship between particular chemical soil characteristics and the structure of arthropod assemblies. For these purpose, two experiments were carried out in which volatile compounds were conducted from source plots with soils with different levels of degradation, sown with wheat or coriander, to sink plots with similar soil, sown with wheat. Crops were evaluated on source plots, and the arthropods communities were assessed on sink-plots. Coriander produced high biomass, grain yield and essential oil in the favorable environments and wheat produced higher biomass and grain yield in soil with low degradation than with high degradation. Particular chemical soil elements, for example, Na, Fe, Mn, N and CEC and essential oil components, for example, γ-trepanned, p-cymene, asinine and β-pinene could be involved in the arthropods assemblies. Based on these results, arthropods communities in agricultural systems are, at least, partially controlled by chemical signals, which depend on plant–soil interactions.     

Influence of Repeated Application of Herbicides on Weed Succession and Yield of Rice Based Cropping System in India

Field experiments were conducted to determine the effect of continuous application of herbicide on weed growth and yield of rice-rice-pulse cropping sequence over nine cropping seasons. The dominant weed species were Marselia quadrifolia, Echinochloa crus-galli, Cyperus difformis and Monochoria vaginalis. In hand weeded plots M. quadrifolia and the annual grass E. crus-galli were dominant in the early crops; E. crus-galli dominated in the later crops, with a shift to M. vaginalis in dicots. Annual application of herbicides caused a population shift from dicots to monocots, particularly grasses. Among grasses, Leptochloa chinensis , a difficult weed to control replaced dicots and reduced E. crus-galli. Combined chemical treatment and manual weeding as well as manual weeding controlled the weed growth and maintained the yield of rice throughout the period of study.     

Assessing innovative sowing patterns for integrated weed management with a 3D crop:weed competition model

Weed dynamics models are needed to design innovative weed management strategies. Here, we developed a 3D individual-based model called FlorSys predicting growth and development of annual weeds and crops as a function of daily weather and cropping practices: (1) crop emergence is driven by temperature, and emerged plants are placed onto the 3D field map, depending on sowing pattern, density, and emergence rate; plants are described as cylinders with their leaf area distributed according to height; (2) weed emergence is predicted by an existing submodel, emerged weed seedlings are placed randomly; (3) plant phenology depends on temperature; (4) a previously developed submodel predicts available light in each voxel of the canopy; after emergence, plant growth is driven by temperature; when shaded, biomass accumulation results from the difference between photosynthesis and respiration; shading causes etiolation; (5) frost reduces biomass and destroys plants, (6) at plant maturity, the newly produced seeds are added to the soil seed bank. The model was used to test different sowing scenarios in an oilseed rape/winter wheat/winter barley rotation with sixteen weed annuals, showing that (1) crop yield loss was negatively correlated to weed biomass averaged over the cropping season; (2) weed biomass was decreased by scenarios allowing early and homogenous crop canopy closure (e.g. reduced interrows, increased sowing density, associated or undersown crops), increased summer fatal weed seed germination (e.g. delayed sowing) or, to a lesser degree, cleaner fields at cash crop sowing (e.g. sowing a temporary cover crop for “catching” nitrogen); (3) the scenario effect depended on weed species (e.g. climbing species were little affected by increased crop competition), and the result thus varied with the initial weed community (e.g. communities dominated by small weed species were hindered by the faster emergence of broadcast-sown crops whereas taller species profited by the more frequent gap canopies); (4) the effect on weed biomass of sowing scenarios applied to one year was still visible up to ten years later, and the beneficial effect during the test year could be followed by detrimental effects later (e.g. the changed tillage dates accompanying catch crops reduced weed emergence in the immediately following cash crop but increased seed survival and thus infestation of the subsequent crops). This simulation showed FlorSys to predict realistic potential crop yields, and the simulated impact of crop scenarios was consistent with literature reports.     

AlomySys: Modelling black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.) germination and emergence,in interaction with seed characteristics,tillage and soil climate: I. Construction

Models quantifying the effects of agricultural practices on weed emergence, in interaction with the soil, are necessary to evaluate and design cropping systems. In the present study, such a model was developed for black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.), a harmful weed frequently found in rotations consisting mostly of winter crops. The model AlomySys was based on sub-models predicting (a) soil environment (climate, structure) resulting from the cropping system and weather, (b) vertical soil seed distribution after tillage, depending on the tool, the characteristics of the tillage implement and the soil structure; and (c) seed mortality, dormancy, germination and pre-emergent growth depending on soil environment, seed depth, characteristics and past history. Seed movements during tillage depend on the tool used, its characteristics, soil structure and on the initial position of the seed. Seed mortality increases with seed age; seed dormancy depends on seed age, seed depth, the conditions in which the seeds were produced and the past moisture and dryness conditions undergone by the seeds; germination is triggered by rain or tillage and driven by hydro-thermal time; pre-emergent shoot elongation depends on seed weight, on the conditions in which the seeds were produced and increases with thermal time; pre-emergent seedling mortality increases with soil dryness, clod size and seed depth. The sub-models were based either on existing models, or developed with literature data or additional experiments. Simulations were carried out to show how weed emergence can be reduced by adapting tillage mode and date to previous crop history.     

Assessing non-chemical weeding strategies through mechanistic modelling of blackgrass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.) dynamics

Because of environmental and health safety issues, it is necessary to develop strategies that do not rely on herbicides to manage weeds. Introducing temporary grassland into annual crop rotations and mechanical weeding are the two main features that are frequently used in integrated and organic cropping systems for this purpose. To evaluate the contribution of these two factors in interaction with other cropping system components and environmental conditions, the present study updated an existing biophysical model (i.e. AlomySys) that quantifies the effects of cropping system on weed dynamics. Based on previous experiments, new sub-models were built to describe the effects on plant survival and growth reduction of mechanical weeding resulting from weed seedling uprooting and covering by soil, and those of grassland mowing resulting from tiller destruction. Additional modifications described the effect of the multi-year crop canopy of grassland on weed survival, growth, development and seed return to the soil. The improved model was used to evaluate the weed dynamics over 27 years in the conventional herbicide-based cropping system most frequently observed in farm surveys (i.e. oilseed rape/winter wheat/winter barley rotation with superficial tillage) and then to test prospective non-chemical scenarios. Preliminary simulations tested a large range of mechanical weeding and mowing strategies, varying operation frequencies, dates and, in the case of mechanical weeding, characteristics (i.e. tool, working depth, tractor speed). For mechanical weeding soon after sowing, harrowing was better than hoeing for controlling weed seed production. The later the operation, the more efficient the hoeing and the less efficient the harrowing. Tractor speed had little influence. Increasing tilling depth increased plant mortality but increased weed seed production because of additional seed germination triggering by the weeding tool. Decreasing the interrow width for hoeing was nefarious for weed control. The best combinations were triple hoeing in oilseed rape and sextuple harrowing in cereals. The best mowing strategy was mowing thrice, every 4–6 weeks, starting in mid-May. The best individual options were combined, simulated over 27 years and compared to the herbicide-based reference system. If herbicide applications were replaced solely by mechanical weeding, blackgrass infestation could not be satisfactorily controlled. If a three-year lucerne was introduced into the rotation, weed infestations were divided by ten. Replacing chisel by mouldboard ploughing before winter wheat reduced weed infestations at short, medium and long term to a level comparable to the herbicide-based reference system.     

Effects of tillage,crop systems and fertilization on weed abundance and diversity in 4-year dry land winter wheat

The arable fields in central Spain have been dominated by cereal production, especially winter wheat. In this area, the defined action of weed management program requires a clear understanding of the factors and mechanisms conditioning weed community dynamics in agro systems. This study evaluated the effects of different agricultural management systems on the abundance and diversity of weed communities in winter wheat crops.Weed density and composition of weed species were sampled over four years; comparing monoculture wheat and rotational wheat in three agricultural management systems: (1) direct drilling (no-tillage, NT); (2) chisel ploughing (minimum tillage 15 cm depth, MT) and (3) mouldboard ploughing (traditional tillage 20 cm depth, CT). With the aim to be able to improve weed management in agro systems with semiarid environments; within each of the agricultural management systems, we examined the impact of mineral fertilization (traditional and balanced) as a tool for reducing the external inputs in arable cereals.Weed diversity was assessed using the three common diversity indices: Shannon's index, evenness index and species richness. The data collected showed total weed density was different per tillage system and each year of the study, but we did not find significant differences between crop systems over the study.The abundance, diversity and evenness of the weed community in the arable field, were significantly increased in NT systems. Within the direct drilling (NT) plots, rotational wheat showed the highest levels of weed infestation and diversity. Comparing traditional and balanced mineral fertilization of soil did not reveal a significant effect on weed abundance and diversity observed in field.     

Crop sequence,crop protection and fertility management effects on weed cover in an organic/conventional farm management trial

A survey of 128 plots, in 2008, of a trial where the effects of crop protection can be separated from those of fertility management, generated weed cover data within six crops (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley, potatoes, cabbages and a grass/clover ley). The effects of the 2008 crop types, of the two preceding crops and of organic and conventional crop protection and fertility management, were assessed using mixed-effects models and constrained ordination. Cover data for 22 weed species and for monocotyledon, dicotyledon, annual, perennial and total weed cover were used. Cover of 15 weed species, and of the five weed groups, was significantly affected by 2008 crops, with cover highest in spring beans and cabbage. Nine and four weed species 2008 cover were significantly related to crops grown in 2007 and 2006 respectively, as were dicotyledon, annual and total weed cover, but not monocotyledon or perennial cover. Cover of 15 species, and the five groups, was significantly higher in plots with organic crop protection, but only eight species and annuals were significantly affected by fertility management. Crop:crop protection produced the most significant interactions with most cover in organically managed plots. Five species, perennials and total weed cover produced significant three-factor models. The greatest weed cover was in organic crop protected but conventionally fertilised spring barley and the least in totally conventional winter barley. Other factors such as crop density and mechanical weeding also affected 2008 weed cover. The ordination indicated that most of the 22 species were strongly associated with crops from all three years. The sequence of crops in the rotation had a profound effect on weed cover. Where three spring-sown, difficult to weed, crops were grown in sequence (spring beans, potatoes and vegetables, spring barley) weed cover increased. However, cover was limited in grass/clover and some cereal plots with different preceding crops. Models predicting weed cover may need to take into account crop sequences within crop rotations, as well as the more usual management inputs.     

Management of Broomrape (Orobanche spp.) – A review

Broomrapes ( Orobanche spp.) are phanerogamic holoparasites that subsist upon the roots of many important crops thus causing considerable yield losses, especially in the drier and warmer areas of Europe, Africa and Asia.
The major principles of reducing the seed bank and controlling the weed in the germination and parasitic/ reproductive phases are critically reviewed. Practices to control broomrape include physical methods (weeding, soil tillage, flooding, irrigation, solarization, flaming), chemical methods (soil fumigation, herbicide application, use of germination stimulants) and biological methods (use of resistant or tolerant varieties, cropping systems with trap and catch crops, intercropping, biological control with insects or fungi). Cultural practices which help to avoid germination, infection or strong reproduction of the weed or improve the crop's tolerance should be optimized.
However, no single cheap method can control the weed, so integrated management practices are required. Integrated control strategies are site- and cropping-system specific but have in common that measures are taken to kill part of the seed bank, induce the conditioned seeds to germinate in the absence of the commercial crop, kill emerging Orobanche shoots before seed set during growth of the commercial crop and further reduce or avoid damage to the commercial crop.     

Weed communities in Italian maize fields as affected by pedo-climatic traits and sowing time

This study examined relationships between weed communities and some pedo-climatic traits in Italian maize cultivation areas. A weed dataset was amassed from studies conducted independently by research groups during 1998–2013. Included were herbicide efficacy field trials and weed surveys from about 600 sites representing 175 northern and central Italy maize fields. The dataset was honed to results from untreated plots in which weed data were collected at least once (June/July) each season. For sites observed more often, only the survey with the highest weed species count was used.Of the approximate 120 species found, just five were present on more than 50% of sites: Chenopodium album, Echinochloa crus-galli, Amaranthus retroflexus, Solanum nigrum, and Persicaria maculosa. Indices were calculated to describe weed community structure: total weed species count, monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous species counts, and total weed density. Additional soil and climate site data were collected or obtained from regional databases: pH reaction, texture, organic matter content, total nitrogen, Mg/K ratio, assimilable phosphorus, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and C/N ratio, annual total precipitation, annual mean temperature, and Thornthwaite climate classification. Pedo-climatic traits and weed indices relationships were investigated using linear correlation analysis (CA), discriminant analysis (DA), and principal component analysis (PCA).CA and PCA highlighted a weak bias (higher count and density) by monocotyledonous species for sand and alkaline soils, while clay and alkaline soils favored dicotyledonous species. DA classified the sites well based on weed indices using soil parameters as predictor variables, in particular for a Piemonte region (northwest Italy) data subset. Soil texture, CEC, pH, and some nutrient contents significantly predicted some weed indices. This study pointed out that Italian maize field weed communities are influenced by some pedoclimatic traits; the weak relationships observed might be mitigated by the overall influence of crop practices on weed dynamics.     

Impact of Soil Tillage and Crop Rotation on Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and Weeds in a Semi-arid Environment

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of mouldboard‐ or chisel‐ploughing and rotations on barley crops and associated weeds in a semi‐arid location. Two primary soil tillage operations and eight crop rotation‐tillage operation combinations were evaluated over two successive seasons. Drought conditions prevailed (<152 mm annual precipitation) and affected the measured parameters. Barley grown in mouldboard‐ploughed plots had higher biomass compared with chisel‐ploughed plots. Barley grain yield was greater in mouldboard‐ploughed plots in a fallow‐fallow‐barley rotation. Weed species densities varied between tillage systems and rotations. Density of Hordeum marinum, for example, was high in fallow‐barley‐fallow in chisel‐ploughed plots, and was high under more continuous fallow in mouldboard‐ploughed plots. Similar variations were also observed in weed fresh weights and in numbers of seed produced. The results describe the productivity of barley under extremely dry conditions, where an advantage for mouldboard ploughing was observed. The results also indicate the complexity of weed communities in their response towards different tillage‐rotation combinations.     

华北平原一年两熟区保护性耕作技术研究进展

冬小麦-夏玉米一年两熟的种植方式在华北平原区的农业生产中占有极为重要的地位,但传统耕作方式使该区的农业生产不可持续。保护性耕作是一种先进的保水保土的生产技术,对该区的农业可持续发展作用甚大。阐述了保护性耕作的定义、原理及保护性耕作的历史与发展,归纳总结了保护性耕作对播种、出苗、田间杂草、作物生长发育及作物产量等方面的影响研究。以期为华北平原一年两熟区的保护性耕作研究提供一定的参考。     

Legume cover crops as living mulches for winter wheat: Components of biomass and the control of weeds

To gain information about the possible use of legume cover crops as an alternative and sustainable weed-control strategy for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), an experiment was conducted at two sites in the Swiss Midlands in 2001/2002. Under organic farming conditions winter wheat was direct-drilled into living mulches established with four different legume genotypes or into control plots without cover crops. Compared to NAT (control plots without cover crops but with a naturally establishing weed community), white clover (Trifolium repens L.), subclover (Trifolium subterraneum L.), and birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) reduced the density of monocotyledonous, dicotyledonous, spring-germinating, and annual weeds by the time of wheat anthesis. Strong-spined medick (Medicago truncatula Gaertner) was less efficient in this regard. While the grain yield was reduced by 60% or more for all legumes when compared to NOWEED (control plots kept weed-free), a significant negative correlation between the dry matter of the cover crop and weeds as well as between the cover crop and the winter wheat was observed by the time of wheat anthesis. The effect of manuring (60 m³ ha⁻¹ liquid farmyard manure) was marginal for weeds and cover crops but the additional nutrients significantly increased total winter wheat dry matter and grain yields. The suppression achieved by some legumes clearly demonstrates their potential for the control of weeds in such cropping systems. However, before living legume cover crops can be considered a viable alternative for integrated weed management under organic farming conditions, management strategies need to be identified which maximise the positive effect in terms of weed control at the same time as they minimise the negative impact on growth and yield of winter wheat.     

基于高通量测序技术分析使它隆对玉米根系内生菌多样性的影响

利用Illumina Miseq高通量测序技术,对玉米根系内生菌16S rRNA的V4~V5可变区序列进行测定,分析不同时期有杂草生长（长草组）与使用使它隆除草对玉米根系内生菌群落组成的影响。从5个玉米根系样品共得到166 647条有效序列、145 298条优质序列和4 464个细菌OTUs。Alpha多样性分析结果表明,玉米根系内生菌的群落多样性随玉米植株的生长而增加;使用使它隆除草后,群落的丰富度和均匀度在花期下降,在成熟期下降明显。对群落组成分析发现,使用使它隆除草后,与长草组相比,花期和成熟期的内生菌在门及属水平上的分布均发生较大变化。内生菌的基因功能分析表明,使用使它隆除草后,花期根系内生菌的异型生物质的降解代谢通路丰度高于未喷施使它隆的长草组样品;成熟期糖代谢通路丰度高于长草组。结果表明,喷施使它隆能降低玉米根系内生菌的多样性,并使内生菌的组成比例发生变化。花期根系内生假单胞菌属等比例的增加与异型生物质的降解代谢有关;成熟期肠杆菌属、芽孢杆菌属等比例的增加与糖代谢功能的提高有关。     

高麦茬覆盖复播效应及技术研究

高麦茬覆盖复播技术,是在机械收获后在的高茬麦田,通过人工撒种、施耕机施耕等作业环节,达到灭茬、播种、覆盖的目的。这种复播方式既有蓄水保墒、调控地温、培肥改土、抑制杂草等土壤环境效应,又有促进夏作物生长发育、提高产量的生物学效应。与常规耕作复播相比,每公顷增产夏玉米１２７５ｋｇ、夏 大豆８２６．５ｋｇ,增产率分别为２９．１％和３３．１％。     

连作对棉田土壤枯、黄萎病菌数量及细菌群落的影响

采用选择培养法测定新疆库尔勒不同连作年限棉田土壤枯、黄萎病病菌数量的变化,运用PCR-DGGE(Polymerase chain reaction-denatured gradient gel electrophoresis)技术分析棉花连作对土壤细菌群落结构和多样性的影响。结果表明,不同连作年限棉田的枯萎病菌和黄萎病菌量具有相似的变化特征,即在5~20年连作年限内,土壤中病原菌量随着连作年限的延长而增加,20年连作土壤病原菌数量达到最高峰;连作超过20年,土壤菌源数量开始下降。不同连作年限棉田土壤中枯、黄萎病病原菌的数量与发病株率呈显著正相关关系。连作棉田土壤细菌群落的DGGE图谱分析显示,连作棉田土壤细菌种群的组成、结构、丰富度均发生变化。连作5~40年的棉田土壤细菌种群Shannon-Wiener多样性指数(H')、均匀度(EH′)和丰富度(S)指数均降低,且连作年限越长降低越突出。     

马铃薯连作障碍研究进展

马铃薯是世界上四大粮食作物之一。在中国由于马铃薯大面积连年种植,造成连作障碍,导致块茎产量和品质下降等问题。连作障碍是土壤与作物相互作用的结果。本文综述了引起马铃薯连作障碍的主要原因,以及防治马铃薯连作障碍的主要方法。主要从连作马铃薯土壤理化性质劣变、化感自毒作用、土壤微生物群落结构变化等方面介绍了马铃薯连作障碍机制的研究进展;并从合理轮作、间套作,施用生物有机肥等农艺措施,化学熏蒸、物理消毒等土壤消毒措施方面介绍了马铃薯连作障碍防控的研究进展,旨在为研究马铃薯连作障碍机理和建立克服连作障碍的技术奠定基础。     

撂荒地生物除草效果及其对土壤肥力的影响

作为一种有效的除草方式,生物除草具有众多优势,研究生物除草后杂草的变化规律和土壤肥力变化特征,为生态农业的发展提供技术支撑。采取小区试验,通过设置不同生物组合模式在不同季节进行撂荒地的过渡放牧试验,分析除草前后杂草种类、杂草生物量、土壤性质的变化,从而筛选出简便高效的撂荒地除草模式。结果表明：鸡春季旱地除草效果和鹅冬季水田除草效果受到放养密度的影响,且鹅+鸡组合模式的除草效果好于其单一投放模式。鸡、鹅分别对旱地和水田除草后,土壤中有机质、铵态氮和有效磷含量均有所增加,但在不同季节增幅含量有所不同,pH值都有所下降;鹅+鸡组合模式在旱地和水田除草后,除pH值有所下降外,其余养分含量都有所增加。利用家禽对撂荒地进行除草不仅能够达到除草目的,且在一定程度上提升了土壤肥力水平,但需注意其粪便腐熟引起的土壤pH降低问题。     

西安市粮食作物田土壤杂草种子库研究

粮食生产具有明显的地域性特征,不同粮食作物、不同耕作制度下的田间杂草种子库差别较大。本文通过土样采集、室内诱萌、田间调查等方法,对西安市72块小麦-玉米轮作制度下的粮食作物田土壤杂草种子库进行分析研究。结果表明：（1）西安市粮食作物田20 cm土层中杂草种子平均为11351.70粒/m2,有活性的杂草种子占3.50%,田间实际发生的杂草占0.51%。（2）不同生态类型粮食作物田杂草种子量差别较大,表现为塬岭区>沿山>平原灌区>河漫滩,平原灌区作为西安市的主要粮食作物田,其土壤杂草种子为11044.44粒/m2,与塬岭区、沿山相比处于较低的水平。（3）在不同土层中,7~14 cm土层的杂草种子量占杂草种子总量的37.04%,略多于0~7 cm和14~20 cm土层的杂草种子量。     

广州地区四季叶菜田杂草群落组成及其生态位

为明确南亚热带地区四季叶菜田杂草群落组成及其生态位,利用倒置“W”九点取样法,对广州地区4个市区16个规模化菜场杂草群落进行季节动态调查。结果表明,春季杂草群落结构以腋花蓼（Polygonum plebeium）+马齿苋（Portulaca oleracea）+光头稗（Echinochloa colonum）为主;夏季以马齿苋+碎米莎草（Cyperus iria）+凹头苋（Amaranthus lividus）为主;秋季以马齿苋+酸模叶蓼（Polygonum lapathifolium）+凹头苋为主;冬季以腋花蓼+碎米荠（Cardamine hirsuta）+酸模叶蓼为主。运用改进的Levins生态位宽度指数和Pianka生态位重叠指数对四季优势杂草生态位进行分析,结果表明,15种优势杂草生态位总宽度大部分在0.50以上,其中生态位总宽度生态位宽度大于1.00的有马齿苋（1.22）、腋花蓼（1.15）、酸模叶蓼（1.08）。夏季生态位重叠指数达到0.50的最多,秋季则最少。生态位重叠指数最大的3组杂草分别为春季的马唐（Digitaria sanguinalis）和牛筋草（Eleusine indica）（0.87）,夏季的马齿苋和凹头苋（0.82）以及马齿苋和牛筋草（0.80）。     

连作对土壤微生物菌群影响及修复研究进展

连作可短时间内带来经济效益，满足日益增长的粮食等农产品需求，但长期连作会加速土壤退化，导致作物减产和病害率增高，破坏土壤微生物结构平衡，不利于土壤生态系统的可持续发展。良好的土壤生态系统中有益微生物、有害微生物及植物间维持着相对平衡。微生物群落结构直接指示整个土壤生态系统的转化方向。通过总结前人在连作对土壤微生物菌群的影响及其修复连作土壤障碍方面的研究结果，探讨修复方式的利弊及其未来的研究方向，旨在为连作障碍土壤修复和植物生长发育创造良好条件，为保持土壤微生物群落结构平衡、保证土壤生态系统的可持续发展提供理论依据。