Adsorption and ion exchange: basic principles and their application in food processing

A comprehensive overview of adsorption and ion exchange technology applied for food and nutraceutical production purposes is given in the present paper. Emanating from these fields of application, the main adsorbent and ion-exchange resin materials, their historical development, industrial production, and the main parameters characterizing these sorbents are covered. Furthermore, adsorption and ion exchange processes are detailed, also providing profound insights into kinetics, thermodynamics, and equilibrium model assumptions. In addition, the most important industrial adsorber and ion exchange processes making use of vessels and columns are summarized. Finally, an extensive overview of selected industrial applications of these technologies is provided, which is divided into general applications, food production applications, and the recovery of valuable bio- and technofunctional compounds from the byproducts of plant food processing, which may be used as natural food additives or for their potential health-beneficial effects in functional or enriched foods and nutraceuticals.     

Analysis of Heat Transfer Fouling by Dry‐Grind Maize Thin Stillage Using an Annular Fouling Apparatus

In dry‐grind processing to produce ethanol from corn, unfermented solids are removed from ethanol by distillation and dried to produce distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), an animal food. Fouling of thin stillage evaporators has been identified as an important energy consumption issue in dry‐grind facilities. Using an annular fouling apparatus, four batches of thin stillage were analyzed to determine repeatability of fouling rate and induction period measurements. Dry solids, protein and ash concentrations, and pH were correlated to fouling rate and induction period to determine how variation in thin stillage from the same dry‐grind facility affects these fouling parameters. Effects of increasing Reynolds number (Re) in the laminar region on fouling rate, induction period, and fouling deposit protein and ash concentrations were also determined. Repeatability of fouling rate measurements was similar to other studies (CV < 7.0%) but repeatability of induction period measurements was high relative to other studies (CV < 88.7%). Fouling rate increased with increasing dry solids concentration. Thin stillage at Re = 440 had shorter induction periods and greater fouling rates than at Re = 880. Fouling deposits collected from Re = 440 tests had similar protein concentrations and lower ash concentrations compared with deposits from Re = 880 tests.     

Introduction to the Focus Issue

Cereal biomacromolecules are an important source not just of calories but also of functional ingredients in foods and as raw materials for biodegradable nonfood applications. Their important role is evidenced by an ever‐increasing number of peer‐reviewed publications on these topics. Current research is increasingly focused on understanding the fine structure of the macromolecules and their interactions with other ingredients within a food matrix for their impact on health. Furthermore, these learnings about the fine structure and interactions have relevance to functionality in nonfood applications. This focus issue attempts to summarize the state of the knowledge and research gaps related to the three major biomacromolecules in cereals: starch, proteins, and nonstarch polysaccharides (dietary fiber). Click on Current Issues on left and then July/August 2013 to view the articles in this Focus Issue. (From the Mobile site, go to the July/August 2013 issue.)     

电磁场抑制换热面析晶污垢的形成

为研究电磁场对换热表面析晶污垢的抑垢情况,该研究以电磁水处理动态试验台为依托通过一系列变工况的试验,获取了不同磁场强度、流速和入口温度下碳酸钙污垢热阻热阻曲线,又通过电磁场、流场及温度场之间的正交分析得出了各因素对析晶污垢生长的具体影响。结果表明,试验磁感应强度范围内污垢热阻随磁感应强度的增大呈减小趋势;不加磁场湍流状态下,流速越大污垢热阻越小;磁场与流速共同作用可以强化阻垢效果。随着入口温度的增加,热阻渐近值先增大后减小,在入口温度为30℃时出现极大值;电磁场处理产生的热阻减小的效果要大于入口温度增加引起的热阻增加的效果。通过正交分析,得出了影响污垢生长的主次因素由强到弱依次为磁感应强度、流速、入口温度。同时计算出了该试验台在试验工况下的最优运行工况,在入口温度30℃,流速0.4m/s,磁感应强度20 mT情况下抑垢效果最好。研究结果可为工业循环水除垢抑垢提供一定的参考。     

Designing synthetic polymers as soil conditioners

Abstract

This work focuses on synthetic polymeric materials that are designed to function as soil conditioners. A classification of the various polymeric soil conditioners is given and a historical review is attempted. One hundred and three examples are examined, covering the period from 1950 up to today. The routes followed for the preparation of a synthetic polymeric soil conditioner are discussed. In this way, materials and/or properties are tailored for certain applications. Water‐soluble, water‐insoluble (crosslinked or hydrophobic), ionic, or non‐ionic conditioners are examined and pictures of their shapes are given. Finally, a discussion on the combination(s) of materials and/or properties outlines the future trends of this topic. Interpenetrating networks, blends of soil conditioning polymers, polymers combined with slow‐releasing compounds as well as transformable materials are included by examining certain works that are concerned with such materials presenting combined properties that are used in specific applications.     

Effect of pH on Fouling Characteristics and Deposit Compositions in Dry‐Grind Thin Stillage

Dry‐grind corn processing facilities produce ethanol, carbon dioxide, and distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). To produce DDGS, dry‐grind corn processors concentrate thin stillage in multieffect evaporators. Concentration of thin stillage uses large amounts of energy, and efficient operation is important for long‐term economic stability of the industry. Little data are available on fouling of evaporators during thin stillage concentration. We evaluated how thin stillage pH and acid type used during pH adjustment affected fouling as measured by induction period, fouling rate, and deposit composition. Using an annular fouling apparatus, fouling tests were conducted at pH 3.5, 4.0, and 4.5. In a second experiment, we used two types of acid, HCl or H₂SO₄, to adjust thin stillage to pH 3.5. Induction periods were shorter at pH 3.5 than at pH 4.0 or 4.5. As pH increased, fouling deposit protein decreased and ash increased. Concentrations of most elements, including P, Ca, Mg, Mn, and K, increased with an increase in pH. Phosphorus was the most abundant mineral element in fouling deposits. Induction periods were similar for the two acids. Thin stillage pH has an influence on deposit concentration, fouling rate, and induction period.     

NMR-based screening method for transglutaminases: rapid analysis of their substrate specificities and reaction rates

Incorporation of inter- or intramolecular covalent cross-links into food proteins with microbial transglutaminase (MTG) improves the physical and textural properties of many food proteins such as tofu, boiled fish paste, and sausage. Other transglutaminases (TGases) are expected to be used in the same way, and also to extend the scope of industrial applications to materials, drugs, and so on. The TGases have great diversity, not only in amino acid sequence and size, but also in their substrate specificities and catalytic activities, and therefore, it is quite difficult to estimate their reactivity. We have developed an NMR-based method using the enzymatic labeling technique (ELT) for simultaneous analysis of the substrate specificities and reaction rates of TGases. It is quite useful for comparing the existing TGases and for screening new TGases or TGases variants. This method has shown that MTG is superior for industrial use because of its lower substrate specificity compared with those of guinea pig liver transglutaminase (GTG) and red sea bream liver transglutaminase (FTG). We have also found that an MTG variant lacking an N-terminal aspartic acid residue has higher activity than that of the native enzyme.     

Thermal degradation of the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by molds of the Fusarium genus, which are able to infect cereal crops in the field. Concerning its rate of occurrence and mean concentration, DON is one of the most important mycotoxins in cereal commodities. Its toxic effects range from causing diarrhea, vomiting, and gastro-intestinal inflammation to noncompetitive inhibition of the biosynthesis of proteins in eukaryotic cells. To study the stability of DON under food-processing conditions such as cooking or baking, we performed model heating experiments and screened the residue for degradation products. Heating of DON and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-AcDON), especially under alkaline conditions, gave a mixture of compounds, which were isolated and structurally elucidated by NMR and MS experiments. Three of these compounds were already known (norDON A, norDON B, and norDON C), while four were new and named 9-hydroxymethyl DON lactone, norDON D, norDON E, and norDON F. The significance of the DON degradation products was checked by analyzing commercially available food samples. norDON A, B, and C were detected in 29-66% of the samples in mean concentrations ranging from 3 to 15 microg/kg. Furthermore, cell culture experiments using IHKE cells showed that the compounds that were detected in food samples are less cytotoxic in the formazan dye cytotoxicity assay compared to DON. Whereas DON revealed a median effective concentration (EC50) at 1.1 micromol/L, all other compounds did not show any significant effect up to 100 micromol/L. These findings indicate that the degradation of DON under thermal treatment might reduce the toxicity of DON contaminated food.     

Protocol for the production of concentrated extracts of food folate for use in human bioavailability studies

To provide a tool to study folate bioavailability under controlled conditions, a methodology was developed to produce extracts representative of natural food folates but removed from their matrix and sufficiently concentrated so as to elicit a response in biomarkers of folate status without distorting usual dietary intake patterns. Egg, spinach, and yeast were selected to represent the wide range in extent of folate conjugation found in foods (0, 60, and 100% polyglutamyl folate, respectively). The protocol, which was based on extracting food folates using only reagents safe for human consumption, was optimized in the laboratory (thermal extraction for 10 min in a 2% ascorbate solution at pH 5) and then adapted for industrial scale production in a food-processing facility. Results showed that the extracts were 2.3-12 times more concentrated in folate compared with their corresponding food sources. Neither the mono- to polyglutamate ratio nor the distribution of the main folate derivatives was altered during processing, making these extracts suitable for use in human bioavailability studies.     

Chemical compositions and physicochemical properties of the fiber-rich materials prepared from shoyu mash residue

Fiber-rich materials including desalted shoyu mash residue (briefly referred as desalted mash residue, DMR), alcohol-insoluble solid (AIS), and water-insoluble solid (WIS) were prepared from shoyu mash residue, which is a filtration cake obtained during the isolation of shoyu by press filtration of fermented matrix in the final process. The DMR, AIS, and WIS contain rich dietary fiber of 52.4, 61.5, and 54.7 wt %, respectively. The DMR, AIS, and WIS all have significantly lower bulk densities, and higher water-holding capacities, oil-holding capacities, swelling abilities, and cation-exchange capacities than the control cellulose. These results indicated that the said fiber-rich materials prepared in this study all have the desired physicochemical properties for being used as satisfactory sources of dietary fibers or low-calorie bulk ingredients in food applications requiring oil and moisture retention. Furthermore, the said fiber-rich materials also have high contents of isoflavones, mainly daidzein and genistein, which are considered as the most bioavailable phytoestrogens, with a total amount of about 1200-1480 micromol/100 g (equal to daidzein of ca. 3040-3759 microg/g, or genistein of 3240-3996 microg/g). The results revealed that the said fiber-rich materials might be a potent fiber source for health foods.     

基于数字图像测量技术的豆粕剪切变形特性

为了研究豆粕在剪切过程中的变形特性,利用基于数字图像测量技术的三轴仪,开展了豆粕三轴剪切试验。考虑了围压(25~100 kPa)、孔隙率(44.8%~50.9%)及颗粒破碎对豆粕强度及变形的影响,分析豆粕的不同变形发展阶段,并提出对应的应力应变模型,获得相关的强度和变形参数。试验结果表明,豆粕试样的应力应变曲线为软化型,随着围压增大,其强度软化性增大,剪胀性却逐渐减小。相同围压下,随着试样孔隙率减小,豆粕的峰值强度逐渐增大,剪胀角也逐渐增大,剪胀性表现越明显。不同破碎程度的豆粕颗粒分析结果对比发现,破碎后的豆粕峰值剪切强度增大,体变呈完全剪缩,围压越大剪缩现象越明显,这表明颗粒破碎对强度和变形影响很大,且围压对颗粒破碎的影响比孔隙率对颗粒破碎的影响大。最后,基于局部变形结果分析,将豆粕的应力应变曲线划分为3个阶段,即破坏前、破坏和残余阶段,提出了不同阶段对应的应力应变模型,获得了其强度和变形参数,得到破坏比为0.701 6。通过研究豆粕的剪切变形特性试验结果,获得了豆粕的强度、变形规律及其本构模型,可为粮仓结构的安全设计、优化分析及粮仓储粮等进一步数值仿真建模提供基础参考数据。     

Composite films from pectin and fish skin gelatin or soybean flour protein

Composite films were prepared from pectin and fish skin gelatin (FSG) or pectin and soybean flour protein (SFP). The inclusion of protein promoted molecular interactions, resulting in a well-organized homogeneous structure, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy and fracture-acoustic emission analysis. The resultant composite films showed an increase in stiffness and strength and a decrease in water solubility and water vapor transmission rate, in comparison with films cast from pectin alone. The composite films inherited the elastic nature of proteins, thus being more flexible than the pure pectin films. Treating the composite films with glutaraldehyde/methanol induced chemical cross-linking with the proteins and reduced the interstitial spaces among the macromolecules and, consequently, improved their mechanical properties and water resistance. Treating the protein-free pectin films with glutaraldehyde/methanol also improved the Young's modulus and tensile strength, but showed little effect on the water resistance, because the treatment caused only dehydration of the pectin films and the dehydration is reversible. The composite films were biodegradable and possessed moderate mechanical properties and a low water vapor transmission rate. Therefore, the films are considered to have potential applications as packaging or coating materials for food or drug industries.     

Cinnamaldehyde content in foods determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

trans-Cinnamaldehyde, the principal component of cinnamon flavor, is a potent antimicrobial compound present in essential oils such as cinnamon. In the course of studies designed to discover its maximum microbial lethality under food-processing conditions, a gas chromatographic-mass spectrophotometric procedure was developed for the extraction and analysis of essential oil components such as cinnamaldehyde from commercial cinnamon-containing foods (several brands of cinnamon breads, cereals, cookies, puddings, applesauces, and fruit juices). The cinnamaldehyde content ranged from trace amounts in orange juice to 12.2 mg/100 g (122 ppm) in apple cinnamon cereals and 31.1 mg/100 g (311 ppm) for cinnamon swirl bread (highest value). To ascertain the heat stability of cinnamaldehyde, pure cinnamaldehyde, pure eugenol, cinnamon oil, and mixtures consisting of cinnamaldehyde plus eugenol or cinnamon oil were heated at graded temperatures up to 210 degrees C and 60 min, and then possible compositional changes were examined. Eugenol was stable to heat, as were the components of cinnamon oil: carvone, eugenol, and linalool. In contrast, starting at approximately 60 degrees C, pure cinnamaldehyde undergoes a temperature-dependent transformation to benzaldehyde under the influence of heat. Eugenol, both pure and in cinnamon oil, when added to pure cinnamaldehyde protected the aldehyde against heat destruction. The protection may due to an antioxidative action of eugenol. The possible mechanism of this effect and the significance of these findings for food chemistry and microbiology are discussed.     

Determination of the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A and its derivatives in canned foods.

Migration of the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) to food from can enamels and can pull-top seals is reported. Derivatives of DGEBA are also determined in some foods. Levels of DGEBA in the foods surveyed in this study range from nondetected (<0.3 ppb) to 50 mg/kg as determined by liquid-liquid extraction or solid-phase extraction coupled with high-pressure liquid chromatography using fluorescence detection. Confirmation of the analytes is by gas and/or liquid chromatography with mass spectral analysis. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with 30 degrees specular reflectance/transmittance is used to characterize the coated food contact surfaces. Stability studies with DGEBA in water, acid, and saline solutions show conversion to the hydrolysis products and chloro adducts occurs readily. The presence of DGEBA derivatives in food demonstrates that analysis for DGEBA migration alone is not a good indicator of total migration from can coatings to foods.     

散料在锥仓中的静压接触状态与影响因素

为研究散料属性与锥仓结构对散料与锥仓之间接触状态的影响,建立了自由开接触、滑移闭接触、黏着闭接触等状态的接触条件与数学求解模型;以葵花籽、玉米、煤粉、圆砾石、小麦为实例,进行了散料在不同倾角锥仓中的静压接触状态有限元分析,给出了5种散料在倾角分别为20°、33.7°、45°的锥仓中的接触状态。结果显示:散料堆积密度、弹性模量、泊松比、膨胀角、内摩擦角、内聚力等属性对散料在锥仓中的接触状态影响程度不同,其中膨胀角和内聚力有较大影响,膨胀角很小时,可能会有开接触状态,内聚力越大,则黏着接触区越小;锥仓由深向浅过渡时,开接触区域会消失,滑移接触区会变小,黏着接触区会增大。当散料黏着接触区增加时,不利于锥仓卸料;滑移接触区增加则对锥仓表面摩擦损伤大。通过散料在锥仓中的接触状态研究可从力学特性上评价锥仓设计与储料效率。     

Production and characterization of O/W emulsions containing droplets stabilized by lecithin-chitosan-pectin mutilayered membranes

The possibility of producing stable oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions containing oil droplets surrounded by multiple layer interfacial membranes from food grade ingredients has been demonstrated. These emulsions were produced using a three stage process that relies on the adsorption of charged biopolymers to oppositely charged surfaces. Emulsions (0.5 wt % corn oil, 0.1 wt % lecithin, 0.0078 wt % chitosan, 0.02 wt % pectin, and 100 mM acetic acid, pH 3.0) containing oil droplets stabilized by lecithin-chitosan-pectin membranes were formed using this interfacial layer-by-layer deposition process. The droplets in these emulsions had good stability to aggregation over a wide range of pH values and salt concentrations (pH 4-8 at 0 mM NaCl and pH 3-8 at 100 mM NaCl). This technology could be extremely useful to the food industry for the creation of O/W emulsions with improved properties or novel applications, e.g., improved stability to environmental stresses, protection of labile substances, controlled release, and triggered release.     

Food sources of early colonising arthropods: The importance of allochthonous input

Arthropod predators and detritivores are among the first colonisers on land surfaces undergoing primary succession. In the absence of higher plants and herbivores, they may either have an allochthonous food source (i.e. of geographically distant origin) or local food source that is sustained by e.g. microorganisms. By studying spiders and collembolans on sites along chronosequences on recently emerged nunataks (ice-free land in glacial areas), we analysed whether the food source of early colonisers was of local or distant origin. Also, we measured the potential changes in trophic position with increasing site age. With stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of both spiders and collembolans, we determined that allochthonous food sources are important on the youngest sites. The allochthonous food sources may explain how arthropods can persist in the absence of local primary productivity. Also, some spider species may increase their ability to survive by shifting their trophic position as the community composition changes. The results indicate that a wolf spider species shifted towards a lower trophic level with increasing site age. By contrast, no shifts in trophic position were observed for sheet-web spiders or collembolans.     

Technique to Measure Surface‐Fouling Tendencies of Steepwater from Corn Wet Milling

Surface‐fouling tendencies of raw light steepwater (LSW) and membrane‐filtered light steepwater (FSW) from corn wet‐milling were studied using an annular fouling probe. The probe contained a heated surface to simulate the surface temperature of an evaporator. The heated region caused a fraction of solids in the steepwater to adhere to the surface, thus fouling the probe over time. FSW samples were prepared by filtering LSW using a microfiltration membrane with a nominal pore size of 0.1 μm. Fouling tendencies of both samples were established at an initial probe wall temperature of 99°C. Batches (30 L) were circulated through the fouling probe until the inner surface temperature of the probe reached 200°C. Temperature and power supplied to the probe were measured over time and used to calculate fouling resistance and rate of fouling. Measurement of maximum fouling resistance and fouling rate had a coefficient of variation (COV) of 5.1 and 7.4%, respectively. Maximum fouling resistances attained over a 12‐hr period were 0.36 and 0.049 m² °C/kW for LSW and FSW, respectively. Average rates of fouling were 4.53 × 10^‐4 and 0.82 × 10^‐4 m² °C/kW/min for LSW and FSW, respectively, showing an 80% decrease in fouling rate using microfiltration to remove 19% of solids.     

水流近壁面水力剪切力对滴灌系统碳酸钙污垢的影响

针对目前水动力学条件对滴灌系统碳酸钙污垢形成的影响及适宜的污垢控制阈值尚不明确的问题,该研究对不同近壁面水力剪切力(0～0.70 Pa)下的滴灌系统附着碳酸钙污垢总量、晶相组成及表观形貌进行了分析。结果表明：不同剪切力显著(P<0.05)影响了碳酸钙污垢的形成,随着剪切力的增大碳酸钙污垢的总量呈现先增高后降低的趋势,最大碳酸钙污垢形成量的剪切力为(0.42±0.02)Pa。剪切力较低(0～0.42 Pa)时,随着剪切力的增大碳酸钙晶体的尺寸逐渐变大,Ca²⁺和CO₃^2-的碰撞几率增加且晶体成核效率提高,使得碳酸钙污垢总量呈现增加趋势;剪切力较高(0.42～0.70 Pa)时,随着剪切力的增大碳酸钙晶体大小逐渐减小,且晶体由于高剪切力的作用发生破碎和脱落,使得碳酸钙污垢总量呈现下降趋势。建议灌水器流道近壁面水力剪切力控制在0～0.24 Pa和0.65～0.70 Pa,以减少碳酸钙污垢的形成。该研究结果可为高抗堵塞灌水器的研发以及劣质水滴灌技术的应用和推广提供支撑。