The complete elimination of vicine and convicine from the faba beans by combinations of genetic selection and processing techniques

Out of sixty six faba bean (Vicia faba) cultivars and genotypes grown locally in Egypt and in Syria, the genotype 123 A/45/76 proved to be lowest in its vicine and convicine contents. Furthermore, soaking of this bean variety in 1% acetic acid at 40°C for 48 h resulted in reducing the total vicine and convicine contents of the beans by 90%. Home-made faba beans processing including soaking prior to cooking as in the case of bean cakes resulted in considerable reduction of the vicine and convicine contents by 56 and 34% respectively.     

Nutritional value of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seeds for feed and food

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is a protein-rich legume seed well adapted to most climatic areas of Europe and widely used for feed and food. Even if the seed is generally recognized to be of good nutritional value, existing genetic variability for seed composition offers possibilities for improvement of this trait by breeding. Four major quality types must be distinguished according to the presence or absence of tannins in the integuments and of vicine (V) and convicine (C) in the cotyledons. The nutritional value of diets containing varying amounts of different faba bean cultivars characterized by high or low levels of tannins, and high or low levels of vicine + convicine (VC), has been examined in monogastric animals and ruminants. Low-tannin content generally results in higher protein and energy digestibility for monogastric animals and low VC content has a positive effect on laying hen and broiler production performances. V and C, inactive precursors of divicine and isouramil are redox compounds potentially toxic to human carriers of a widespread genetic deficiency of the erythrocyte (red blood cell, RBC) enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD). Ingestion of faba beans by these deficient individuals may cause a severe, potentially lethal hemolytic anemia (favism). The mechanism of action of divicine and isouramil in the G6PD-deficient RBC is discussed.     

Variation of favism-inducing factors (vicine,convicine and L-DOPA) during pod development inVicia faba L.

Changes in the concentrations of vicine, convicine and L-DOPA in two cultivars ofVicia faba L. seeds in different stages of pod development were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The vicine and convincine conent was highest in fresh green cotyledons (moisture content about 80%) and gradually declined until a constant level was reached when seed dry matter percentage was around 40%. A similar pattern of variation in glucoside concentration was observed for the seed coat. The pods contained neither vicine nor convicine but they were particularly rich in L-DOPA. These compounds were not homogeneously distributed in the seeds.     

Nitrogen Uptake by Faba Bean from 15N-Labelled Oilseed-Rape Residue and Chicken Manure with Ryegrass as a Reference Crop

Abstract

The effects of soil amendment with oilseed-rape residue (OSRR) and chicken manure (CM) on the growth and nitrogen (N) uptake of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) were assessed in a pot experiments with Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) as a reference crop. A ¹⁵N isotope dilution method was used to estimate the amount of N derived from the residue (OSRR and CM) and from atmosphere through N₂ fixation in the plants. Dry weights (DW) of shoots and whole plants were heaviest in the plants grown on the soil amended with CM (CM plants) followed by the plants grown on the soil amended with OSRR (OSRR plants) and control plants in this order. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in dry weight between CM, OSRR and control plants. DW of roots was also increased by amendment with either CM or OSRR in faba bean, but it was decreased in ryegrass. The amount of total N in both roots and shoots were increased by application of either CM or OSRR in both faba bean and ryegrass. The amount of N₂ fixed by faba bean cultured on 1.2 kg soil amended with 10g residue (CM or OSRR) was 85.9 mg pot-¹ but total N in faba bean derived from OSRR and CM was 192 and 374 mg pot-¹, respectively. The percentage of N derived from atmosphere to total N in faba bean plants ranged from 15.9 to 26.5%. The amount of N taken up by faba bean and ryegrass plants from CM were larger than those from OSRR by 81.0 and 54.3%, respectively. Soil N balance was calculated as the difference between the amount of N applied (including fixed) and taken up by the plants. The N balance of soil amended with OSRR after cultivation of faba bean was 72.2% higher than that of the soil amended with CM, and that after cultivation of ryegrass was 89.9% higher.     

Marker-assisted selection in faba bean (Vicia faba L.)

Among the multiple applications of DNA markers in breeding, the most promising for cultivar development is marker-assisted selection (MAS). Genetic improvement by MAS has been carried out with success in several legume crops such as soybean, common bean and pea, however, in other species such as faba bean it is still in its early stages. This article provides an overview of the genomic resources and molecular markers currently available in faba bean, with an emphasis on development and application of MAS for genetic improvement of the crop. In general, genetically simple traits have received more attention than genetically complex characters encoded by multiple genes. Research has mainly focussed on developing molecular markers for selecting resistance to a parasitic weed and other major diseases. As a result, molecular breeding for resistance to crenate broomrape, ascochyta blight, rust and chocolate spot is underway, and promising results have been obtained. Recently, markers linked to a gene controlling growth habit or to select against traits affecting the nutritional value of seeds (tannins, vicine and convicine content) have also been reported, which may facilitate a more efficient selection of new cultivars free of anti-nutritional compounds. In the near future, molecular markers should be developed for many other highly sought-after traits that are difficult to breed conventionally such as frost or drought tolerance. Comparative genomics and synteny analyses with closely related legumes, together with extensive mapping of resistance gene analogs (RGAs), will reveal new candidate genes and selectable markers for use in MAS. Finally genomic tools such as macro- and microarrays may eventually become available for use in faba crop improvement.     

Effect of reconstitution and Na2Co3 on tannin content and in vitro protein digestibility of faba bean cultivars

Two faba bean cultivars (317/99/81 and Giaz/402) obtained from Shambat Research Station in Northern Sudan, were used for this study. Investigation showed that the tannin contents of untreated seeds were 0.077% and 0.067% for cultivars 317/99/81 and Giza/402. In vitro protein digestibility values were 80.68% and 81.48% for the two cultivars, respectively. The extractable tannin content of the faba bean cultivars was markedly reduced by imbibing water or Na₂CO₃ solution into whole seeds and incubating them at 30°C for 1, 3, 6, 12 or 24 hours, or at 100°C for 5, 10 or 20 minutes. The extent of reduction depended on time, temperature, and Na₂CO₃ concentration; the percent tannin extracted and percent in vitro protein digestibility increased with time or Na₂CO₃ concentration, while application of high temperature reduced the time.     

Faba bean in cropping systems

The grain legume (pulse) faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is grown world-wide as a protein source for food and feed. At the same time faba bean offers ecosystem services such as renewable inputs of nitrogen (N) into crops and soil via biological N₂ fixation, and a diversification of cropping systems. Even though the global average grain yield has almost doubled during the past 50 years the total area sown to faba beans has declined by 56% over the same period. The season-to-season fluctuations in grain yield of faba bean and the progressive replacement of traditional farming systems, which utilized legumes to provide N to maintain soil N fertility, with industrialized, largely cereal-based systems that are heavily reliant upon fossil fuels (=N fertilizers, heavy mechanization) are some of the explanations for this decline in importance. Past studies of faba bean in cropping systems have tended to focus on the effect of faba bean as a pre-crop in mainly cereal intensive rotations, whereas similar information on the effect of preceding crops on faba bean is lacking. Faba bean has the highest average reliance on N₂ fixation for growth of the major cool season grain legumes. As a consequence the N benefit for following crops is often high, and several studies have demonstrated substantial savings (up to 100–200 kg N ha⁻¹) in the amount of N fertilizer required to maximize the yield of crops grown after faba bean. There is, however, a requirement to evaluate the potential risks of losses of N from the plant–soil system associated with faba bean cropping via nitrate leaching or emissions of N₂O to the atmosphere as a consequence of the rapid mineralization of N from its N-rich residues. It is important to develop improved preventive measures, such as catch crops, intercropping, or no-till technologies, in order to provide farmers with strategies to minimize any possible undesirable effects on the environment that might result from their inclusion of faba bean in cropping system. This needs to be combined with research that can lead to a reduction in the current extent of yield variability, so that faba bean may prove to be a key component of future arable cropping systems where declining supplies and high prices of fossil energy are likely to constrain the affordability and use of fertilizers. This will help address the increasing demand by consumers and governments for agriculture to reduce its impact on the environment and climate through new, more sustainable approaches to food production. The aims of this paper are to review the role of faba bean in global plant production systems, the requirements for optimal faba bean production and to highlight the beneficial effects of faba bean in cropping systems.     

Effects of Rhizobium inoculation,organic and chemical fertilizers on yield and physical properties of faba bean seeds

A field experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of Rhizobium inoculation, sulphur, nitrogen and chicken manure on yield, 100-seed weight, cookability, non-soakers, total defects and hydration coefficient of faba bean. The results showed that sulphur, nitrogen and chicken manure treatments significantly (p 0.05) increased yield, 100-seed weight, non-soakers, and hydration coefficient, in the absence of Rhizobium inoculation. The results also showed that Rhizobium inoculation significantly (p 0.05) increased yield, 100-seed weight, cookability, but decreased non-soakers. A positive correlation (r=0.90) was observed between the non-soaker percent and the total defect percent. No correlation was found between non-soakers, hydration coefficient and cookability. The results of this investigation indicate that Rhizobium inoculation is a promising fertilizer because it is cheap, easy to handle and improves plant growth and seed quality. The efficiency of inoculation could be improved with the addition of biological, chemical or organic fertilizers. Generally, fertilization of faba bean with nitrogen, sulphur or chicken manure not only increased plant growth and yield, but also improved seed quality and nutritional value.     

Nutritional Value of Commercial Protein-Rich Plant Products

The goal of this work was to analyze nutritional value of various minimally processed commercial products of plant protein sources such as faba bean (Vicia faba), lupin (Lupinus angustifolius), rapeseed press cake (Brassica rapa/napus subsp. Oleifera), flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum), oil hemp seed (Cannabis sativa), buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Basic composition and various nutritional components like amino acids, sugars, minerals, and dietary fiber were determined. Nearly all the samples studied could be considered as good sources of essential amino acids, minerals and dietary fiber. The highest content of crude protein (over 30 g/100 g DW) was found in faba bean, blue lupin and rapeseed press cake. The total amount of essential amino acids (EAA) ranged from 25.8 g/16 g N in oil hemp hulls to 41.5 g/16 g N in pearled quinoa. All the samples studied have a nutritionally favorable composition with significant health benefit potential. Processing (dehulling or pearling) affected greatly to the contents of analyzed nutrients.     

Effect of domestic processing,cooking and germination on the trypsin inhibitor activity and tannin content of faba bean (Vicia faba)

The effects of domestic processing methods like soaking for 12 h dehulling, ordinary cooking of whole as well as dehulled seeds at 151bs/inch² pressure for 15 and 25 min, and germination for 24, 36 and 48 h were observed on trypsin inhibitor (TIA) and tannin content of two varieties of faba bean viz. VH-131 and WF. A non-significant reduction in TIA was observed on soaking and dehulling, while tannins showed a reduction of 42 and 51% on soaking in VH 131 and WF, respectively. Dehulled seeds showed a decline in tannin content by 70 to 73% in two varieties. There was a significant reduction in TIA (75–76 per cent) and tannin (76–81%) on cooking, while autoclaving for 25 min almost completely eliminated both of these stress factors. Germination of seeds for 48 h led to a reduction of 64–65% in TIA and 90–91% in tannins, which was more than germination for 24 and 36 h. Soaked seeds gave positive results of both these antinutrients.     

Quick-cooking beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): II. Phytates,oligosaccharides, and antienzymes

Effects of the quick-cooking processes on phytate and oligosaccharide levels, and on trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, were investigated in three bean varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris L.: Great Northern, red kidney, and pinto). Beans soaked in distilled water had lower levels of phytate-P than those soaked in a mixed salt solution. Leaching losses of oligosaccharides were nearly the same in different soaking treatments for all the beans except kidney beans. Residual trypsin inhibitor activities (TIA) in cooked quick-cooking beans were about 10% compared with about 20% for chymotrypsin inhibitor activities (CTIA) in the same bean products. -Irradiation was more effective in reducing TIA than CTIA and paralleled destruction by moist heat.Utah Agricultural Experiment Station Journal article no. 2480.     

Favism-inducing toxins in broad beans (Vicia faba) examination of bean extracts for pyrimidine glucosides

Methods for the isolation and identification of the pyrimidine glucoside, vicine, in extracts of broad beans, are described, By thin-layer chromatography, five fluorescing or fluorescencequenching components of the extracts are identifiable. One of them, which has been isolated from the mixture, is identified as vicine, 2:4-diamino-5:6-dihydroxypyrimidine-5-(-D-glucopyranoside).     

Effect of Egyptian cooking methods of faba beans on its nutritive value,dietary protein utilization and iron deficiency anemia 1. The role of main technological pretreatments

In order to study the effects of main technological pretreatments practised for preparing Egyptian faba bean products, i.e. decortication as well as soaking and germination followed by dehulling on the nutritional value, series of experiments were carried out. Such pretreatments had a significant effect on the changes in the chemical composition of faba beans. The proportion of the removed hulls reached generally about 14%. Data revealed also pronounced improvements on the nutritive value as a result of all studied pretreatments, especially germination being the most effective. Chemical scoring of all determined essential amino acids was >60, except methionine and cystine showed the lowest score (<20). Germinated seeds had the highest chemical score for the restricting amino acids beside the lowest GDR value [Grams consumed of product to cover the daily requirements for adult man in protein (63 g) and in energy (2900 kcal)]. All pretreatments caused a significant decrease in the antinutritional factors, especially soaking followed by dehulling, whereas decortication led to a significant increase in phytic acid content.     

Integrated management of Ascochyta blight (Didymella fabae) on faba bean under Mediterranean conditions

Integrated disease management options (two sowing dates, three fungicides and 3–6 faba bean genotypes) in managing Ascochyta blight affecting faba bean were evaluated for three cropping seasons (2006/07–2008/09) in northern Syria for their effects on disease parameters, seed infection and dry seed yield. The combined results of the three seasons on disease parameters showed that sowing dates significantly affected final disease severity and area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC); faba bean genotypes significantly affected final disease severity, rate of disease development and AUDPC. The highest AUDPC (255% days) was observed in early than late planted (168% days) faba bean genotypes. The mean AUDPC of faba bean genotypes ranged from 189% days on genotype 1053–1325 to 234% days on ILB-1814. Only faba bean genotypes and fungicides showed significant interactions in affecting final disease severity and AUDPC. Fungicide sprays significantly affected mean percent pod infection and rate of disease development but not mean percent seed infection. Faba bean genotypes showed significant differences in dry seed yield and the yield ranged from 1.7 t ha⁻¹ in cv. Ascot to 2.4 t ha⁻¹ in faba bean genotype 945-105. Improved varieties with Ascochyta blight resistance are not currently released and available for farmers in northern Syria and the integration of early planting (November–December) with one foliar fungicide spray at vegetative stage can help to reduce Ascochyta blight severity, pod and seed infections. Chlorothalonil and azoxystrobin are widely used fungicides to manage Ascochyta blights on food legumes in many countries and one of them could be used depending on their availability and costs to managing faba bean Ascochyta blight in Syria and other Mediterranean type environments.     

Pretreatment of African Yam Bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sphenostylis stenocarpa</Emphasis>): Effect of Soaking and Blanching on the Quality of African Yam Bean Seed

The effect of pretreatment (soaking in sodium salts and blanching) on hydration coefficient (HC), chemical composition, texture, and color of African yam bean (AYB) was investigated. Soaking in water and in salt solutions increased the HC and about 90% of final HC values were attained at 12 and 4 hr of soaking for whole and dehulled beans, respectively. Protein content was slightly increased by soaking and blanching while ash and fat contents were reduced. Generally, a combination of dehulling and wet-processing reduced firmness of the beans more than soaking or blanching of the whole beans. Antioxidant activity was lowest (3260 TE³100 g) in cream-colored beans and highest (16,600 TE/100 g) in brown-colored beans. The tannin contents of unprocessed cream-colored beans and dehulled wet-processed marble variety were not significantly different (p > 0.05). The levels of tannins in the marble variety were reduced by blanching for 40 min (19.2%), soaking for 12 hr (16.0%), dehulling (72.0%), dehulling and blanching (88.8%). The whiteness of bean flours was increased significantly by dehulling, slightly by wet-processing of marble variety, and reduced significantly by wet-processing of cream-colored beans. TE: micromole equivalents of Trolox (TE) per 100 g of a sample. L^∗ value value: determined by McBeth colorimeter (Minolta Co., Japan).     

Growth,yield and nitrogen performance of faba bean intercrops with oat and triticale at varying seeding ratios

Intercropping of grain legumes with cereals may offer several advantages over sole crops for forage production and is commonly used, particularly in low‐input agriculture. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.), oat (Avena sativa L.) and triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack) sole crops as well as the intercrops of faba bean with each of the above cereals, in three seeding ratios (75:25, 50:50 and 25:75), were compared for dry‐matter (DM) yield, nitrogen (N) concentration, chlorophyll content, growth rate and plant height in a 2‐year field experiment. Triticale sole crop and faba bean intercrops with triticale provided higher DM yield than faba bean sole crop and the intercrops of faba bean with oat. Growth rates of faba bean, oat and triticale in mixtures were lower than those in sole crops. Faba bean plants were taller in the intercrops than in the sole crop at 3 weeks after tillering (WAT), whereas at 6 WAT, the trend was different as faba bean plants in the sole crop were taller than in the intercrops. N concentration was higher for the cereals when faba bean was included in the mixture. Crude protein (CP) concentration was the highest in faba bean sole crop followed by the faba bean intercrops with oat. However, triticale sole crop and faba bean mixtures with triticale provided higher CP yield than all other crops because of their highest DM yield. Thus, mixtures of faba beans with triticale could be a promising alternative for increased forage production because of their capacity for high DM and protein yields.     

Effects of various water or hydrothermal treatments on certain antinutritional compounds in the seeds of the tribal pulse,Dolichos lablab var.vulgaris L.

Effects of soaking, cooking and autoclaving on changes in polyphenols, phytohaemagglutinating activity, phytic acid, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), oligosaccharides and in vitro protein digestibility were investigated in seeds ofDolichos lablab var.vulgaris. Both distilled water and NaHCO₃ solution soaking and autoclaving significantly reduced the contents of total free phenolics (85–88%) compared to raw seeds. Autoclaving (45 min) reduced the content of tannins by upto 72%. Soaking seemed to have limited effect in eliminating phytohaemagglutinating activity, whereas autoclaving (45 min) seemed to eliminate the haemagglutinating activity completely. The reduction in content of phytic acid was found to be some what greater in distilled water soaking (28%) compared to NaHCO₃ solution soaking (22%). Only a limited loss in content of phytic acid was observed under cooking as well as autoclaving. Loss of HCN was greater under autoclaving (87%) compared to the other processes studied. Of the three sugars analysed, soaking reduced the level of verbascose more than that of stachyose and raffinose. Autoclaving reduced the content of oligosaccharides more efficiently (67–86%) than ordinary cooking (53–76%). Autoclaving improved the in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) significantly (13%). Of all the different water and hydrothermal treatments studied autoclaving seemed to be the most efficient method in improving IVPD and eliminating the antinutrients investigated except phytic acid.     

Studies on α-amylase and trypsin inhibitors in legume seeds using agar diffusion and isoelectric focusing techniques

Amylolytic and tryptic inhibitors of faba bean extracts were determined by an agar diffusion test. The amylolytic inhibitor had protein characters. Furthermore, water-soluble trypsin inhibitors ofCicer arietinum, Lens esculenta, Lupinus termis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Trigonella foenum-graecum andVicia faba which were separated by polyacrylamide gel isoelectric focusing (PAGIF) in thin-layers, showed species specific patterns. Negative staining showed 10 bands for French beans, 9 for fenugreek seeds, 8 for lentils and chickpeas, 7 for peas and 6 for faba beans. Lupin seeds were free from trypsin inhibitors. Treatments (soaking, germination and heat processing) of faba beans reduced the number of trypsin inhibitors in PAGIF patterns, less after soaking and germination, but more after roasting and frying. No inhibitors were detected after cooking.     

Functionality and characterization of kafirin-rich protein extracts from different whole and decorticated sorghum genotypes

The study of food-grade isolated kafirin proteins has increased recently due to the interest of their potential applications in gluten-free products. However, functionality of extracted proteins and fractions have been poorly characterized. In this investigation, kafirins were extracted from whole or decorticated sorghum genotypes (white-regular, white-waxy, red-regular and high-tannin) with 70% aqueous ethanol with metabisulfite. Chemical composition, color parameters, functionality and molecular characterization of kafirin extracts were determined. When kafirin extracts were obtained from decorticated sorghums, higher protein purities (81.5–93.3%), lower lipid contents (1.9–12.6%), better color parameters, and higher yields were obtained compared to counterparts extracted from whole caryopses. Functional properties of the extracted kafirins showed low water solubility, free amino nitrogen, and emulsifying activity, but adequate water holding and fat absorption capacities and in vitro protein digestibility. Differences in functionality were attributed to sorghum genotype. SDS-PAGE showed extraction of α₁-, α₂-, β-, and γ-kafirins with no contamination of other protein fractions. FTIR indicated a reduction in α-helix:β-sheet after extraction, especially in proteins obtained from decorticated sorghums. High correlations found from Pearson analysis could be used to optimize protein yield and the functionality (emulsifying activity and solubility) of the extracted proteins to be applied in gluten-free food systems.     

Effect of preparation and cooking on the nutritive value of local kidney bean

Nutritive value and protein quality of kidney bean before and after different methods of preparation and cooking had been studied. This was done to find out whether the nutritive value and protein quality of kidney bean seeds are affected by soaking them before boiling or not.Kidney bean seeds (var. Giza 3) were either boiled or soaked and then boiled.Moisture, crude protein, fat, Carbohydrate, ash, fiber, caloric value and some minerals including Calcium phosphorus and iron were determined in both raw and prepared seeds.Evaluation of the protein quality was done by determining the protein efficiency ratio, net protein ratio and serum analysis of rats fed diets containing either raw or prepared seeds. Serum analysis included the estimation of total serum proteins, albumin/globulin ratio and free non essential to essential amino acids ratio.The results showed that kidney bean is rich in carbohydrate and protein, poor source of dietary calcium and reasonably good source of dietary iron.It was also clear that although seeds, boiled without soaking contained higher percentages of minerals than those boiled after soaking, yet, they were lower in protein quality. This was proved by the results of all the methods used for protein quality evaluation.

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Zusammenfassung Nährwert und Eiweißqualität von reifen weißen Bohnen(Phaseolus vulgaris) wurden vor und nach verschiedenen Zubereitungs- bzw. Kochmethoden untersucht. Zuerst war festzustellen, ob der Nährwert und die Eiweißqualität Weißer Bohnen-Samen durch Vorquellung vor dem Kochen beeinflußt werden.Weiße Bohnen-Samen (Sorte Giza 3) waren entweder gekocht oder vorgequollen und dann gekocht. Gehalte an Trockensubstanz, Rohprotein, Fett, Kohlehydraten, Asche, Rohfaser, Kalorien und einigen Mineralstoffen (Ca, P, Fe) wurden in trockenen Bohnen und in zubereitetem Zustand bestimmt, ferner das Protein Efficiency Ratio und das Net Protein Ratio im Versuch an entwöhnten Albino-Ratten, dort auch das gesamte Serum Protein, das Serum-Albumin/Globulin-Verhältnis und schließlich das Verhältnis der freien nichtessentiellen zu den essentiellen Aminosäuren.Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß gekochte Samen ohne Vorquellung einen höheren Prozentsatz an Mineralien aufweisen als solche, die nach Vorquellung gekocht wurden, sie zeigen jedoch eine geringere Proteinqualität. Diese Beobachtung wurde bei allen angewandten Versuchsmethoden der Proteinqualitätsbestimmung gemacht.