Sand flux estimation during a sand-dust storm at Tazhong area of Taklimakan Desert, China

In this paper, the sand transport during a sand-dust storm in the Tazhong area of the central Taklimakan Desert from 11:29 to 23:56 on July 19, 2008 was observed and measured in real time. The sand flux at Tazhong was estimated using sand transport empirical formulas. The critical friction velocity at Tazhong was 0.24 m/s and the functional relation between the wind speed and sediment discharge at the height of 2 m was established. It was also found that the calculated values by Lettau's sediment discharge formula were close to those of the instrument measurements. The horizontal sand flux and the vertical sand flux during this sand-dust storm at Tazhong were respectively 258.67×10-4 kg/(m·s) and 40.07×10-7 kg/(m2·s).     

Fetch effect on the developmental process of aeolian sand transport in a wind tunnel

As the sand mass flux increases from zero at the leading edge of a saltating surface to the equilibrium mass flux at the critical fetch length, the wind flow is modified and then the relative contribution of aerodynamic and bombardment entrainment is changed. In the end the velocity, trajectory and mass flux profile will vary simultaneously. But how the transportation of different sand size groups varies with fetch distance is still unclear. Wind tunnel experiments were conducted to investigate the fetch effect on mass flux and its distribution with height of the total sand and each size group in transportation. The mass flux was measured at six fetch length locations(0.5, 1.2, 1.9, 2.6, 3.4 and 4.1 m) and at three free-stream wind velocities(8.8, 12.2 and 14.5 m/s). The results reveal that the total mass flux and the mass flux of each size group with height can be expressed by q=aexp(–bh), where q is the sand mass flux at height h, and a and b are regression coefficients. The coefficient b represents the relative decay rate. Both the relative decay rates of total mass flux and each size group are independent of fetch length after a quick decay over a short fetch. This is much shorter than that of mass flux. The equilibrium of the relative decay rate cannot be regarded as an equilibrium mass flux profile for aeolian sand transport. The mass fluxes of 176.0, 209.3 and 148.0 μm size groups increase more quickly than that of other size groups, which indicates strong size-selection of grains exists along the fetch length. The maximal size group in mass flux(176.0 μm) is smaller than the maximal size group of the bed grains(209.3 μm). The relative contribution of each size group to the total mass flux is not monotonically decreasing with grain size due to the lift-off of some small grains being reduced due to the protection by large grains. The results indicate that there are complex interactions among different size groups in the developmental process of aeolian sand transport and more attention should be focused on the fetch effect because it has different influences on the total mass flux, the mass flux profile and its relative decay rate.     

Reinvestigation of the scaling law of the windblown sand launch velocity with a wind tunnel experiment

Windblown sand transport is a leading factor in the geophysical evolution of arid and semi-arid regions. The evolution speed is usually indicated by the sand transport rate that is a function of launch velocity of sand particle, whichhasbeen investigated by the experimental measurement and numerical simulation. However, the obtained results in literatures are inconsistent. Some researchers have discovered a relation between average launch velocity and wind shear velocity, while some other researchers have suggested that average launch velocity is independent of wind shear velocity. The inconsistence of launch velocity leads to a controversy in the scaling law of the sand transport rate in the windblown case. On the contrary, in subaqueous case, the scaling law of the sand transport rate has been widely accepted as a cubic function of fluid shear velocity. In order to explain the debates surrounding the windblown case and the difference between windblown and subaquatic cases, this study reinvestigates the scaling law of the vertical launch velocity of windblown transported sand particles by using a dimensional analysis in consideration of the compatibility of the characteristic time of sand particle motion and that of air flow. Then a wind tunnel experiment is conducted to confirm the revisited scaling law, where the sand particle motion pictures are recorded by a high-speed camera and then the launch velocity is solved by the particle tracking velocimetry. By incorporating the results of dimensional analysis and wind tunnel experiment, it can be concluded that, the ratio of saltonsnumber to reptonsnumberdetermines the scaling law of sand particle launch velocity and that of sand transport rate, and using this ratio is able to explain the discrepancies among the classical models of steady sand transport. Moreover, the resulting scaling law can explain the sand sieving phenomenon: a greater fraction of large grains is observed as the distance to the wind tunnel entrance becomes larger.     

Effects of wind guide plates on wind velocity acceleration and dune leveling: a case study in Ulan Buh Desert,China

The areas used to be covered by shifting sand dunes have been reclaimed rapidly in recent years. However, it is a challenge to reclaim high sand dunes because it is rather costly to level the high dunes to gentle arable lands. In this study, a wind guide plate was used to change the characteristics of natural wind to level the sand dunes. The use of wind energy could significantly increase the efficiency of dune leveling and decrease the cost. Low wind velocity is a typical characteristic in Ulan Buh Desert of China where the average wind speed is much lower than the threshold velocity for sand movement. The experiment of this study was conducted to accelerate the wind velocity by a wind guide plate to level a sand dune. Results show that the threshold velocity for sand movement is 3.32 m/s at 10 cm above the sand surface in Ulan Buh Desert. A wind guide plate set at an angle less than 50° could significantly increase the wind velocity. The wind velocity could be accelerated up to the threshold velocity for sand movement behind a plate when the plate is at the angles of 20°, 25°, 35° and 40°. The most significant acceleration of wind velocity appears at 1.5 and 3.0 m behind the plate with an angle of 25°. An obvious wind velocity acceleration zone exists behind the wind guide plate when the angles are at 25°, 35°, 40° and 45°, with the most obvious zone under the angle of 45°. The results also show that the total amount of sand transferred over the experimental period increased by 6.1% under the effects of wind guide plates compared to the sand moved without wind guide plates. The results of the study will provide theoretical and practical supports for desert management in sand dune areas.     

Influence of salinity and moisture on the threshold shear velocity of saline sand in the Qarhan Desert,Qaidam Basin of China: A wind tunnel experiment

Determination of the threshold shear velocity is essential for predicting sand transport, dust release and desertification. In this study, a wind tunnel experiment was conducted to evaluate the influence of salinity and moisture on the threshold shear velocity of saline sand. Saline sand samples (mean particle size of 164.50-186.08 μm and the total silt, clay and salt content of 0.80%-8.25%) were collected from three saline sand dunes (one barchan dune and two linear dunes) in the Qarhan Desert, Qaidam Basin of China. Original saline sand samples were placed in two experimental trays for wet and dry processing to simulate deliquescence and desiccation, respectively. Surface moisture content ranging from 0.30% to 1.90% was generated by the steam method so that the saline sand can absorb water in a saturated water vapor environment. The motion of sand particles was determined by the observers with a solid laser. The laser sheet (0.80 cm thick), which was emitted by the solid laser, horizontally covered the sand surface and was bound to the sand. Results show that the cohesion of saline sand results from a combination of salt and water. The threshold shear velocity increases exponentially with the increase in crust thickness for the linear sand dunes. There is a positive linear correlation between the original moisture content and relative threshold shear velocity. The threshold shear velocity of dewatered sand is greater than that of wet sand with the same original moisture content. Our results will provide valuable information about the sand transport of highly saline soil in the desert.     

Wind tunnel test on the effect of metal net fences on sand flux in a Gobi Desert,China

The Lanzhou-Xinjiang High-speed Railway runs through an expansive windy area in a Gobi Desert, and sand-blocking fences were built to protect the railway from destruction by wind-blown sand. However, the shielding effect of the sand-blocking fence is below the expectation. In this study, effects of metal net fences with porosities of 0.5 and 0.7 were tested in a wind tunnel to determine the effectiveness of the employed two kinds of fences in reducing wind velocity and restraining wind-blown sand. Specifically, the horizontal wind velocities and sediment flux densities above the gravel surface were measured under different free-stream wind velocities for the following conditions: no fence at all, single fence with a porosity of 0.5, single fence with a porosity of 0.7, double fences with a porosity of 0.5, and double fences with a porosity of 0.7. Experimental results showed that the horizontal wind velocity was more significantly decreased by the fence with a porosity of 0.5, especially for the double fences. The horizontal wind velocity decreased approximately 65% at a distance of 3.25 m(i.e., 13 H, where H denotes the fence height) downwind the double fences, and no reverse flow or vortex was observed on the leeward side. The sediment flux density decreased exponentially with height above the gravel surface downwind in all tested fences. The reduction percentage of total sediment flux density was higher for the fence with a porosity of 0.5 than for the fence with a porosity of 0.7, especially for the double fences. Furthermore, the decreasing percentage of total sediment flux density decreased with increasing free-stream wind velocity. The results suggest that compared with metal net fence with a porosity of 0.7, the metal net fence with a porosity of 0.5 is more effective for controlling wind-blown sand in the expansive windy area where the Lanzhou-Xinjiang High-speed Railway runs through.     

Comparison of collectors of airborne spray drift. Experiments in a wind tunnel and field measurements

BACKGROUND: In this study, the collecting efficiency of different samplers of airborne drift was compared both in wind tunnel and in field experiments. The aim was to select an appropriate sampler for collecting airborne spray drift under field conditions. RESULTS: The wind tunnel study examined three static samplers and one dynamic sampler. The dynamic sampler had the highest overall collecting efficiency. Among the static samplers, the pipe cleaner collector had the highest efficiency. These two samplers were selected for evaluation in the subsequent field study. Results from 29 individual field experiments showed that the pipe cleaner collector on average had a 10% lower collecting efficiency than the dynamic sampler. However, the deposits on the pipe cleaners generally were highest at the 0.5 m level, and for the dynamic sampler at the 1 m level. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded from the wind tunnel part of the study that the amount of drift collected on the static collectors had a more strongly positive correlation with increasing wind speed compared with the dynamic sampler. In the field study, the difference in efficiency between the two types of collector was fairly small. As the difference in collecting efficiency between the different types of sampler was small, the dynamic sampler was selected for further measurements of airborne drift under field conditions owing to its more well‐defined collecting area. This study of collecting efficiency of airborne spray drift of static and dynamic samplers under field conditions contributes to increasing knowledge in this field of research. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of stones on the sand saltation threshold during natural sand and dust storms in a stony desert in Tsogt-Ovoo in the Gobi Desert,Mongolia

Non-erodible elements such as stones and vegetation are key to controlling wind erosion and dust emission in drylands. Stony deserts are widely distributed in the Gobi Desert, but the effect of stones on wind erosion and dust emission have not been well studied, except under artificial conditions. In this study, we evaluated the effect of stones on wind erosion and dust emission by measuring the sand saltation threshold in a stony desert in Tsogt-Ovoo in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, under natural surface conditions during sand and dust storms. We quantified the amount of stones by measuring the roughness density, and determined the threshold friction velocity for sand saltation by measuring wind speed and sand saltation count. Our results showed that the threshold friction velocity increased with the roughness density of stones. In the northern part of the study area, where neither a surface crust nor vegetation was observed, the roughness density of stones was 0.000 in a topographic depression (TD), 0.050 on a northern slope (N.SL), and 0.160 on the northern mountain (N.MT). The mean threshold friction velocity values were 0.23, 0.41, and 0.57 m/s at the TD, N.SL, and N.MT sites, respectively. In the southern part of the study area, the roughness density values of stones were 0.000 and 0.070-0.320 at the TD and southern slope sites, respectively, and the mean threshold friction velocities were 0.23 and 0.45-0.71 m/s, respectively. We further compared the observed threshold friction velocities with simulated threshold friction velocities using Raupach's theoretical roughness correction and the measured roughness density values, and found that Raupach's roughness correction worked very well in the simulation of threshold friction velocity in the stony desert. This means that the results of our stone measurement can be applied to a numerical dust model.     

Eddy covariance measurements of water vapor and energy flux over a lake in the Badain Jaran Desert,China

Exploring the surface energy exchange between atmosphere and water bodies is essential to gain a quantitative understanding of regional climate change, especially for the lakes in the desert. In this study, measurements of energy flux and water vapor were performed over a lake in the Badain Jaran Desert, China from March 2012 to March 2013. The studied lake had about a 2-month frozen period(December and January) and a 10-month open-water period(February–November). Latent heat flux(LE) and sensible heat flux(Hs) acquired using the eddy covariance technique were argued by measurements of longwave and shortwave radiation. Both fluxes of longwave and shortwave radiation showed seasonal dynamics and daily fluctuations during the study period. The reflected solar radiation was much higher in winter than in other seasons. LE exhibited diurnal and seasonal variations. On a daily scale, LE was low in the morning and peaked in the afternoon. From spring(April) to winter(January), the diurnal amplitude of LE decreased slowly. LE was the dominant heat flux throughout the year and consumed most of the energy from the lake. Generally speaking, LE was mostly affected by changes in the ambient wind speed, while Hs was primarily affected by the product of water-air temperature difference and wind speed. The diurnal LE and Hs were negatively correlated in the open-water period. The variations in Hs and LE over the lake were differed from those on the nearby land surface. The mean evaporation rate on the lake was about 4.0 mm/d over the entire year, and the cumulative annual evaporation rate was 1445 mm/a. The cumulative annual evaporation was 10 times larger than the cumulative annual precipitation. Furthermore, the average evaporation rates over the frozen period and open-water period were approximately 0.6 and 5.0 mm/d, respectively. These results can be used to analyze the water balance and quantify the source of lake water in the Badain Jaran Desert.