Local chicken production system in Malawi: Household flock structure,dynamics, management and health

Household flocks of scavenging chickens were monitored from August 2002 to August 2003 in 27 villages in Lilongwe, Malawi. The objective was to evaluate the local chicken production system by investigating flock structure, utilization, management and constraints. Farmers and researchers jointly obtained data on household flocks. Mean flock size was 12.9, with a range of 1–61 chickens. The flock dynamics of chickens over 8 weeks old constituted 91% migrating out of flocks and 9% into the flocks. Primary functions based on flock dynamics were, in order of importance, household consumption, participation in socio-cultural ceremonies, selling, exchanging breeding stock and gifts. Of the flock exits, 43.9% were due to losses from diseases, predation and theft. Most flocks (85%) were housed in human dwelling units. Scavenging was the main source of feed. The majority (77.6%) of farmers supplemented their chickens erratically with energy-rich feeds, mostly maize bran. Most supplementation took place during the cold-dry season. Village chicken production offers diverse functional outputs but faces animal health (diseases, parasites, predation) and management (feeding) constraints, which require an integrated intervention approach at community and household level.     

A survey of village poultry production in the Solomon Islands

A total of 84 farmers in 31 villages of Guadalcanal, Western, Malaita and Central Provinces of the Solomon Islands were surveyed to obtain baseline information on the current feeding practices and farmer attitudes to village poultry production. Farming of village chickens in the Solomon Islands is conducted on a small scale. Most surveyed farmers thought chickens were easy to care for, provide food for the family and was a good cash income enterprise. Some farmers were interested in keeping local chickens, but found it difficult to obtain the birds. The main feed sources are fresh coconut, copra meal, fish meal, mill run, food scraps and forage sources from the range. Some villagers believe that chickens only need to eat household scraps and did not provide drinking water. Many villagers lacked the knowledge of managing a village poultry enterprise. Some chicken houses were built by using bush materials or by purchasing construction materials. Farmers indicated they would like the government to provide funds for establishing a smallholder poultry enterprise and to provide information on feeding and management of birds.     

Improving village poultry's survival rate through community-based poultry health management: evidence from Benin

Community-based poultry health management (CBM) is a strategy for village poultry improvement based on the installment of “poultry interest groups” in experimental villages. These groups serve as a channel for the dissemination of village poultry improvement technologies. The use of CBM is due to the fact that village poultry farming is practiced in a total or partial scavenging system which gives the impression that all the birds in the village belong to the same flock. Accordingly, actions that target all farmers of the same village may have a larger impact on the village poultry's survival rate than actions that target individual producers. The objective of this study is to assess the impact of CBM on the survival rate of village poultry. Based on data collected on 353 poultry keepers, the study shows that CBM significantly improves the survival rate of village poultry. The adoption of technologies—poultry vaccination, construction of henhouses, and improved feed—disseminated through the CBM also significantly improves the survival rate. The access to markets for inputs and veterinary services is also important in improving the survival rate of poultry. Finally, the study suggests that governments and development agencies can improve village poultry survival rates by investing in the dissemination of information regarding best husbandry management practices through approaches that rely on the community such as CBM because CBM groups serve as channels for the dissemination of village poultry improvement technologies.     

Uses and flock management practices of scavenging chickens in Wolaita Zone of southern Ethiopia

Rearing of scavenging chickens is among the most commonly practiced farm activities in Ethiopia. This system is dominated by indigenous chickens. Output from indigenous chickens is low due to poor management and absence of intense selection that is intended to improve economically important traits. This showed that village chickens are rather evolved for adaptation traits. However, the level of risk is low, and this has made rearing of scavenging chickens a choice of farm activity for smallholder farmers. The objective of this study was to characterize the scavenging chickens’ production system in Wolaita Zone. Single-visit survey involving individual interview of 119 farmers and 6 focus group discussions was used to collect the data. Our results showed that rearing of scavenging chickens was constrained especially by disease and predation problems. However, farmers proposed a set of solutions to minimize the effect of these problems. Rearing of scavenging chickens fulfils the multi-functional need of the society. This system has special features because it can sustain in its own without the need for modern commercial chicken farming facilities. However, farmers also reported the drawbacks of rearing of scavenging chickens and these mainly include uproot of garden crops and tiresomeness of the night watching. Selection of chickens was mainly depending on physically observed traits like body size and plumage colour. The initial foundation flock was mainly obtained from the local market. The ideal place for scavenging chickens production is the one that has intermediate weather condition and has some trees that can be used as shade; however, it was substantiated that it has to be free from bush and shrubs, weeds and wet lands. Therefore, these pieces of knowledge embedded among smallholder farmers need to be well documented and synthesized to design an appropriate type of technology packages that can be communicated back to farmers to improve productivity of the scavenging chickens.     

Characteristics of two duck farming systems in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam: stationary flocks and moving flocks, and their potential relevance to the spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza

Ducks are considered to play a major role in the spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in Viet Nam, but detailed information on their management is limited. We distinguished two different systems (1) stationary duck flocks that are not commonly driven to rice fields beyond village boundaries and that are confined overnight on farms and (2) moving duck flocks that are intentionally driven to rice fields beyond village boundaries, that are not returning to home farms for extended periods and that are housed overnight in temporary enclosures in rice paddies. A total of 115 stationary and 22 moving flock farmers were interviewed in 2007 in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam. Moving duck flocks are larger than stationary flocks, which is indicative of their more commercial production. Moving flock farmers apparently are more aware of HPAI risks than stationary flock farmers, as their flocks are more likely fully vaccinated and have less contact with chickens during scavenging. On the other hand, the spread of HPAI virus between birds might be promoted by moving duck flocks as they repeatedly use transport vehicles and numerous rice paddies for scavenging and are often visited by hatchery owners in the field for purchasing duck eggs. In addition, long distances travelled by moving duck flocks might also result in widespread dissemination of HPAI virus. Further studies are necessary to describe HPAI prevalence and travel patterns of moving duck flocks and to explore the moving duck flock network in detail.     

Husbandry and trade of indigenous chickens in Myanmar—Results of a participatory rural appraisal in the Yangon and the Mandalay divisions

There is a variety of professions working with village chickens in developing countries, including farmers, veterinarians and chicken traders. People from all these occupations were involved in a participatory rural appraisal to investigate husbandry practices and trade of village chickens in Myanmar. Data were collected in two climatically different regions of the country, in the Yangon and in the Mandalay divisions. The breeding and training of fighting cocks was practised only in the Mandalay division, with well-trained birds sold for very high prices. Apart from this, chickens were raised in both regions mainly for small disposable income and were generally sold when money was needed, in particular during religious festivals. Chicken traders on bicycles, often called ‘middle men’, usually purchase birds from farmers in about 10 villages per day. Several ‘middle men’ supply birds to wealthier chicken merchants, who sell these birds at larger chicken markets. There is in general limited knowledge among farmers about the prevention of Newcastle disease via vaccination. Commercial indigenous chicken production is practised in Myanmar, but family poultry farming dominates indigenous chicken production in the country.     

Indigenous Muscovy ducks in Congo-Brazzaville. 1. A survey of indigenous Muscovy duck management in households in Dolisie City

A cross-sectional study by means of a questionnaire with open-ended questions and multiple-choice questions was used to collect data on the profile of duck keepers, husbandry practices, and performances, opportunities and constraints of Muscovy duck breeding in households (n = 88) in Dolisie city (Congo-Brazzaville). The study confirmed the common observations on traditional poultry keeping such as scavenging during the day and housing overnight. The flock size (7.7 ± 3 ducks per unit) showed no specialization of husbandry (100% of surveyed flocks were kept for simultaneous production of ducklings, meat and eggs) and a high drake-to-duck ratio (1:3). The hatchability was close to 80.5% ± 13%, whereas the average number of eggs was 13.2 ± 5 per clutch. In addition, a high mortality (80%) was observed in ducklings, which was due to poor feeding, lack of veterinary care and housing conditions. Eggs and live ducks were sold by duck farmers in response to the family needs rather than market price. The three most important findings were as follows: (1) duck keepers were mainly men (80% versus 20% of women); (2) there was no evidence of taboo; and (3) the duck as an exotic bird was not proscribed by cultural beliefs, and therefore development of the Muscovy duck in Congo Brazzaville should be unhindered.     

Village Poultry Production Systems in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA), supported by checklists and intensive case studies on individual households, was carried out in three villages at three different altitudes in the central highlands of Ethiopia. The chicken production system in each village is described and the problems are discussed. More than 60% of the families kept chickens, and in most cases the women owned and managed the birds and controlled the cash from the sales. The production systems followed were mainly low-input and small-scale, with 7–10 mature birds per household, reared in the back yards with inadequate housing, feeding and health care. The average egg production per clutch was 15–20, with 3–4 clutches per year. The mean number of eggs set per bird was 12.9±2.2 (n = 160), depending on the size of the bird and season, and the hatching rate was 80.9%±11.1%, range 44%–100% (n = 160). Poultry meat and eggs were generally accepted and appreciated in all three villages. In addition to the small amount of cash income they provide, scavenging chickens have nutritional, cultural and social functions. The flock composition, price of poultry and poultry products, disease outbreaks and hatching of chicks were strongly affected by season. Disease was cited as the most important problem by most of the members of the community, followed by predation, lack of feed, poor housing, insufficient water and parasites. Disease periodically decimated the flocks, and consequently, about 50% of the eggs produced were incubated in order to replace the birds that had died. The major source of loss in the system was the high mortality of chicks (61%) that occurred between hatching and the end of brooding at 8 weeks of age. The system was characterized by no or few inputs and a low output level. The major input was the cost of foundation stock, but after that virtually no cost was involved. The major source of feed for the birds was from the scavenging feed resource base, which comprised table leftovers, small grain supplements and anything edible from the immediate environment.     

Feeding and performance of pigs in smallholder production systems in Northern Lao PDR

A survey was carried out in the North of Lao PDR to study feeding systems and the performance of pigs in smallholder systems. A total of 341 farmers from five provinces were interviewed. To feed their pigs, farmers mainly rely on feedstuffs produced on the farm and collected from areas near the village. The feedstuffs used included by-products such as rice bran and distiller’s waste, planted feeds, mainly maize and cassava, and various green plant materials. The feedstuffs used are usually high in energy and low in protein content, and the only readily available protein source is green plant material. This results in nutritionally imbalanced diets and as a result poor pig performance. The average growth rate of pigs in these systems was found to be only approximately 100 g/day. The reproductive performance of sows was found to be relatively low, as is the case of local breeds in the region, with an average litter size at birth of 6.8 piglets. The mortality of piglets was as high as 50% and was a main concern of farmers. In order to improve the productivity of pigs in smallholder systems, there is a need to find alternative feed resources to improve the nutritional feed quality, and to develop management systems which are suited to the needs and practices of smallholders.     

The multiple burdens of zoonotic disease and an ecohealth approach to their assessment

Individual interviews were conducted in 137 households using semi-structured questionnaires to determine the influence of socioeconomic factors on production constraints faced by indigenous chicken producers in the rural areas of South Africa. The major constraints to village chicken production were mortality (95 % of the households) followed by feed shortage (85 %) and low chicken sales (72 %). The logistic regression model showed that households that owned imported/crossbred chickens practiced extensive production system without housing structures and did not have vaccines were more likely to experience high levels of chicken mortality. Poor and youth-headed households with no supplements and vaccines had high probability of Newcastle disease. The probability of a household to experience chicken feed shortage was lower in households that owned indigenous chickens than those that owned imported/crossbred chickens (odds ratio, 11.68; 95 % confidence interval, 1.19–27.44). Youth-headed households that had small flocks and no access to veterinary services were not likely to sell chickens. It was concluded that gender, age, wealth status, production system, chicken flock size, type of chicken breed owned, accessibility of veterinary services, availability of supplements, vaccines and shelter influence village chicken farmer’s production constraints such as feed availability, chicken mortality, prevalence of diseases and chicken sales.     

An assessment of chicken husbandry including Newcastle disease control in rural areas of Chibuto,Mozambique

This paper describes the management practices of village poultry in Chibuto and the impact of the Newcastle disease vaccination program conducted between January 2005 and August 2008. A 51-question survey was conducted in 11 villages involved in the Newcastle disease vaccination program in Chibuto, Mozambique. The mean flock size was significantly higher in households that provided their chickens with feed (15.0) than chickens that only scavenged (8.7; P = 0.0001). The mean flock size was significantly higher in households with vaccinated chickens (16.9) than those with unvaccinated chickens (10.0; P = 0.0005). The average number of chicks hatched during the most recent brooding was significantly higher in households that fed their chickens (9.2) than chickens that only scavenge (6.9; P = 0.0335). The mean hatch rate was significantly higher in households with vaccinated chickens (0.8) than those with unvaccinated chickens (0.7; P = 0.0324). It was determined that unvaccinated chickens are approximately five times more at risk to die of Newcastle disease (odds ratio = 4.79). This study supported the efficacy of the I-2 Newcastle disease vaccine as shown by the increased average flock size and decreased incidence of chicken mortality due to Newcastle disease. The level of farmer involvement and ongoing commitment by community vaccinators suggest that the Chibuto vaccination program is likely to be sustainable in the medium- to long-term.     

Diseases of indigenous chickens in Bokaa village, Kgatleng district, Botswana

This study examined flock size and management, level of internal and external parasite burden and seroprevalence of antibodies to poultry pathogens in indigenous chickens in Bokaa village, Kgatleng district, Botswana. The mean flock size was 22.6 +/- 6.85 with a range of 11-34. The mean body weights of cocks and hens were 2.28 +/- 0.56 kg and 1.70 +/- 0.38 kg, respectively. Housing and commercial poultry feed were not provided. Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum and Syngamus trachea were found in some birds. Although the chickens were not vaccinated against any poultry diseases, serum antibodies to Newcastle disease, infectious bursal disease and infectious bronchitis were detected.     

Exploring the economic potential of reducing broiler lameness

1. The present study was designed first to explore the potential economic benefits of adopting management practices to reduce lameness in broiler farms, and second to explore farmers’ possible perceptions of this potential in the Swedish context. The likely financial effects were addressed using a normative economic model, whereas a questionnaire-based survey was used to obtain in-depth knowledge about the perceptions of a group of broiler farmers in Sweden.

2. The three alternative practices (out of 6 tested) which realised the greatest improvements in gross margin and net return to management compared to the conventional practice were feeding whole wheat, sequential feeding and meal feeding.

3. The model showed that the negative effect of feeding whole wheat on feed conversion rate was outweighed by the effect of a low feed price and the associated decrease in feed costs. The price of wheat played a major role in the improvement of economic performance, whereas the reduction of lameness itself made a relatively minor contribution.

4. Apparently, the surveyed farmers do not recognise the potential of the positive effects of changing feed or feeding practices on both broiler welfare and farm economics although their implementation can be of great importance in the broiler sector where profit margins are very tight.?     

Characterization of local chicken production systems and their potential under different levels of management practice in Jordan

This study aimed to characterize the local chickens and their production systems and to investigate the opportunities for improvement. The study was carried out in 18 villages in northern Jordan with the participation of 120 households. Data were collected by individual interviews and surveys supported with structured questionnaires. A scoring system was developed to study the effect of different levels of management on chicken performance. The main reasons for keep local chickens were egg production and generation of income. The main features of the production systems were improper housing and inadequate hygiene. Newcastle disease, predators, and parasites were the main causes of flock losses. Purchasing rate was controlled by the chickens’ phenotype, sex and age, and by season of year. The average flock size was 41.6 (±32.9) chickens per household, with a hen:cock ratio of 6.4:1. The average effective population size was 15.35, which indicated a high rate of inbreeding (5.52%). The main selection criterion adopted by farmers was egg production. There were positive significant correlations (p < 0.001) between management level and chickens’ performance. Hatchability, survivability, flock size, number of clutches, egg weight and egg mass were the major parameters that improved significantly with improvement in management level. Local chickens fulfil significant functions in the livelihood of rural smallholders; however, many constraints affected the efficiency of the production systems. Solutions should start with improving the management practices and establishing an effective breeding system.     

Free-range Village Chickens on the Accra Plains, Ghana:Their Husbandry and Productivity

A cross-sectional[4pc] survey investigating husbandry and productivity of free-range village chickens was carried out in four administrative districts within 60km of Accra. Responses were provided by 101 men and 99 women. The mean (SD) household flock size was 28.7 (25.97) and the median was 20. The factors included in the final model investigating variance in flock size were sex of the respondent (p=0.011), administrative area (p=0.004), the numbers of members in the household (p=0.017) and the number of cattle, sheep and goats owned by the household (p=0.031). Chickens were owned by individual members of the household, but women and children were the predominant providers of care for chickens. All respondents described their chickens as scavengers that were provided with supplementary feed, and over 80% of respondents named maize as a supplementary food source. Approximately 50% of respondents claimed difficulty in providing supplementary feed, with the degree of difficulty varying between administrative areas (p<0.001). A majority of respondents (approximately 65%) claimed that their chickens laid 3–4 clutches of eggs per year. Over 70% of respondents estimated that each clutch contained 10–20 eggs, and approximately 70% of respondents estimated that 75% of the eggs hatched. Opinions on mortality varied, but 60% of men and 70% of women estimated that between 50% and 75% of both chicks and adult birds died each year. Approximately 80% of respondents named Newcastle disease as the most important health issue. The opportunities for and consequences of controlling Newcastle disease are discussed.     

The Productivity of Small Animal Species in Small-scale Mixed Farming Systems in Subtropical Bolivia

The productivity of the scavenging, small animal species (chickens, ducks, pigs, hair sheep and guinea-pigs) commonly found on small-scale farms at the forest margin in subtropical Bolivia was monitored over a full year. Chickens and guinea-pigs were kept mainly for home consumption, while ducks and pigs were kept mainly for sale. Sheep served both purposes, depending upon the family requirements. In the absence of veterinary treatment, the productivity varied greatly between farms. Pigs gave the greatest gross return, but received the largest amount of supplementary feed. Under the existing system, chickens, ducks and sheep all gave similar gross returns per breeding female, although chickens produced good returns and made a large contribution to the family diet where the reproductive efficiency was high and the chick mortality was low. Mortality resulting from disease was a major problem in poultry, while internal parasites appeared to be important limiting factors in pigs and sheep. Guinea-pigs showed no major problems apart from theft, and were an important dietary component for immigrant families from the highlands of the country. Small animal species have largely been ignored by agricultural research and development activities in Bolivia and elsewhere. They currently make significant contributions to the livelihoods of poor people in terms of both income and food security, and this could be greatly increased by simple improvements in animal husbandry.     

岐山县饲料入户调查报告

饲料入户情况反映的是一个地区畜牧业发展水平.通过对岐山县5个乡镇15个行政村的1557户养殖户的调查,规模养殖饲料入户率已达到100%.但总体养殖效果参差不齐,需要改善饲料流通渠道,配套规模养殖相应的技术管理措施,做到饲料工业发展和养殖水平同步提高.     

Breeding practices,growth, and carcass potential of fat-tailed Washera sheep breed in Ethiopia

On-farm survey of farmers' breeding practices, breeding objectives, and selection criteria and on-station feedlot performance evaluation of Washera sheep were undertaken in Ethiopia. The survey revealed that most (79.8%) of the farmers had no breeding ram. The mating system was predominantly uncontrolled. A majority (75.5%) of the sheep owners reported that they herded their sheep flock by mixing with other livestock species mainly with cattle. During grazing, 44.6% of the farmers mix their sheep flock with neighboring sheep flocks. The major sheep production objective was to generate income from the sale of live sheep. Fast growth, appearance, coat color, and pedigree performance were important ram selection criteria, respectively. Ability to breed at early age, pedigree information, mothering ability, and lambing interval were important selection criteria for ewe, respectively. The on-station performance study involved evaluation of feedlot gains and carcass production under five levels of feeding regimes (300, 400, 500, 600, and 700 g day⁻¹ of concentrate feed) for a period of 93 days. The results indicated that the feedlot growth and carcass performance of Washera sheep were very high, with average daily weight gains of up to 126 g and carcass weight of 16 kg, with the optimal level of supplementation for Washera sheep being at 500 g of concentrate per day for a period of 93 days.