Diseases of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) in South Africa: a 20-year retrospective survey.

As part of an ongoing study to determine the basis for high prevalences of veno-occlusive disease, glomerulosclerosis, and chronic lymphoplasmacytic gastritis in cheetahs, a retrospective pathology survey of captive cheetahs in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) was conducted. The RSA population was selected because its genetic composition and captive management were similar to those of the cheetah population in U.S. zoos, in which these diseases are common. For this study, archived pathology materials at the University of Pretoria Faculty of Veterinary Sciences in Onderstepoort and the Faculty of Veterinary Science, MEDUNSA, from 69 cheetahs that died between 1975 and 1995 were reviewed, and prevalences of common lesions were compared with those in the U.S. population. Gastritis associated with Helicobacter-like organisms was the most prevalent disease, accounting for close to 40% of the mortalities, including several cheetahs < 3 yr old. Glomerulosclerosis and veno-occlusive disease also were major causes of mortality in RSA cheetahs. RSA cheetahs also had adrenal cortical hyperplasia, cardiac fibrosis, lymphocytic depletion of the spleen, systemic amyloidosis, and splenic myelolipomas. The presence in the captive RSA cheetah population of the same unusual diseases that are common in U.S. cheetahs suggests a species predilection to develop these diseases in captivity.     

The stress response to environmental change in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

The captive North American cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population is not self-sustaining because of high prevalences of unusual diseases and poor reproductive success. Cheetahs are commonly moved between zoos for breeding purposes to maintain genetic diversity within the captive population, and movement may exacerbate infertility and disease. Fecal corticoids were analyzed by radioimmunoassay to measure the stress response of cheetahs to movement between facilities. Fecal samples were collected from 15 cheetahs for 14 days before movement and for at least 30 days after movement. For each cheetah, premovement fecal corticoid concentrations were used to determine baseline and then compared with trends in postmovement concentrations. In general, postmovement corticoid concentrations either increased (n = 8), did not change (n = 2), or decreased (n = 5). Although individual animal differences occurred, corticoid concentrations increased for most animals moved on-exhibit and decreased in animals moved off-exhibit. Animals moving on-exhibit had an 18-times greater risk of having corticoids elevated more than two standard deviations above baseline for 30 days after movement compared with animals that moved off-exhibit. In addition, greater day-to-day variation in corticoids occurred in animals moved on-exhibit. In general, animals with initially low baseline corticoid concentrations had a greater postmovement corticoid response than cheetahs with initially high baseline levels. These results indicate that some cheetahs have a prolonged stress response when moved between facilities, and the magnitude and character of this response is influenced by the exhibit environment.     

Chronic hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma associated with persistent woodchuck hepatitis virus infection

The livers of 16 woodchucks with naturally acquired chronic infection with woodchuck hepatitis virus were examined both grossly and histologically in 14 biopsy specimens and seven necropsy specimens. Fifteen woodchucks had lesions characteristic of chronic hepatitis; ten of these had chronic active hepatitis, four had chronic persistent hepatitis, and one had cirrhosis with nodular regeneration. In one woodchuck there was massive hepatic necrosis attributed to infection with an unclassified protozoan. Thirteen woodchucks had primary hepatocellular carcinoma. Metastasis to the lung was observed in only one woodchuck. These results were compared to liver lesions in 149 woodchuck hepatitis virus-negative woodchucks. Chronic hepatitis comparable to that associated with woodchuck hepatitis virus infection was not observed in woodchuck hepatitis virus-negative woodchucks although in one, a single, small hepatocellular adenoma was found.     

Efficacy and long-term outcome of gastritis therapy in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

A prospective clinical trial evaluating efficacy and long-term outcome of treatments for lymphoplasmacytic gastritis in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) was conducted. The study evaluated efficacy of 11 different antibiotic and antiinflammatory treatment protocols in 32 cheetahs (19 male, 13 female) for reducing gastric inflammation and Helicobacter colonization and monitored the course of disease through histologic grading of gastric biopsies. All cheetahs were biopsied up to I wk before treatment and then rebiopsied within 1 mo after treatment. Most animals were reassigned to a second treatment regimen within 6 mo. Each animal received from one to three treatments during the study period. After the trial, gastric biopsies were obtained from each cheetah annually until death or transfer from the facility to assess disease progression. The trial and follow-up period spanned 10 yr. At onset of the trial, all 32 cheetahs had some degree of gastritis, and 26 cheetahs (81%) were colonized with Helicobacter. Inflammatory lesions worsened regardless of treatment or the presence of Helicobacter. No treatment had a significant effect on inflammatory changes except the lansoprazole/clarithromycin/amoxicillin treatment group, which produced a short-term decrease in inflammation when compared to controls. Prednisone had no effect on gastric inflammation. Overall, 65% of colonized cheetahs were initially cleared of histologic evidence of Helicobacter by treatment, with short-term eradication occurring in 100% of the animals treated with omeprazole/clarithromycin/amoxicillin or tetracycline/metronidazole/Pepto-Bismol for 28 days. Long-term follow-up of treated animals in this study clearly demonstrated that these treatments had little effect on life-long progression of gastritis or on Helicobacter burden in individual cheetahs, although some treatments provided short-term reduction in gastritis and Helicobacter. These results provide evidence that Helicobacter alone is not the cause of gastritis in cheetahs and do not support the use of antibacterial treatments in cheetahs unless significant clinical signs (e.g., frequent vomiting/regurgitation, weight loss) are apparent.     

Detection of feline coronavirus infection in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) by polymerase chain reaction.

Feline coronavirus genetic elements were detected by polymerase chain reaction from blood, fecal samples, and effusive fluid collected from 33 cheetahs in the U.S.A. Feline coronavirus-specific serum antibodies were also measured by indirect immunofluorescence. Ten cheetahs were positive for viral shedding by polymerase chain reaction, whereas 13 were seropositive by immunofluorescence. Results of serology did not consistently correlate with shedding of virus, and the capture antigen used for detection of feline coronavirus-specific antibodies had a significant impact on results. Testing of samples from one population over a 1-yr period indicated chronic infection in some animals. These relatively healthy carrier animals were a source of virus for contact animals. Screening programs in cheetah populations for feline coronavirus infection may be most reliable if a combination of serologic analysis and viral detection by polymerase chain reaction is used.     

Beta amyloid deposition and neurofibrillary tangles spontaneously occur in the brains of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

Alzheimer disease is a dementing disorder characterized pathologically by Aβ deposition, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuronal loss. Although aged animals of many species spontaneously develop Aβ deposits, only 2 species (chimpanzee and wolverine) have been reported to develop Aβ deposits and neurofibrillary tangles in the same individual. Here, the authors demonstrate the spontaneous occurrence of Aβ deposits and neurofibrillary tangles in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Among 22 cheetahs examined in this study, Aβ deposits were observed in 13. Immunostaining (AT8) revealed abnormal intracellular tau immunoreactivity in 10 of the cheetahs with Aβ deposits, and they were mainly distributed in the parahippocampal cortex and CA1 in a fashion similar to that in human patients with Alzheimer disease. Ultrastructurally, bundles of straight filaments filled the neuronal somata and axons, consistent with tangles. Interestingly, 2 of the cheetahs with the most severe abnormal tau immunoreactivity showed clinical cognitive dysfunction. The authors conclude that cheetahs spontaneously develop age-related neurodegenerative disease with pathologic changes similar to Alzheimer disease.     

Chronic eosinophilic dermatitis associated with persistent feline herpes virus infection in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

A chronic ulcerative and eosinophilic dermatitis occurred in 20 captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) with persistent feline herpes virus 1 (FHV1) infection. Affected animals had erythematous, ulcerated plaques primarily on the face and forelegs in sites of contact with lachrymal and salivary secretions. The dermatitis was characterized by dense infiltrates of eosinophils and plasma cells and pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia. Rare keratinocytes within the lesions had nuclei with marginated chromatin and small eosinophilic inclusions composed of herpes virus nucleocapsids. Virus isolated from lesions was confirmed to be FHV1. Lesions persisted and progressed unless removed by cryoexcision. The occurrence of this unusual reaction to FHV1 in approximately 5% of captive North American cheetahs suggests a species propensity for a Th2-dominant response to herpes virus infection. This atypical immune reaction may indicate a heritable trait or modulation of the immune response by other factors such as chronic stress.     

Generalized nodular dermatofibrosis in the absence of renal neoplasia in an Australian Cattle Dog

A 13-year-old, spayed, female Australian Cattle Dog had at least a 10-year history of numerous subcutaneous nodules for which fine-needle aspiration and cytologic evaluation were nondiagnostic. Abdominal ultrasound 3.5 months before necropsy detected a small left kidney but no cysts or neoplasms. At gross necropsy, innumerable, firm, round to oval, white, 0.25 to 2 cm masses were detected throughout the subcutaneous tissues of the axial and appendicular skeleton, epimysium of numerous muscles, and parietal peritoneum of the lateral abdominal body wall. The left kidney was approximately half the size of the right, and there was severe bilateral renal medullary (papillary) necrosis. Histologically, the subcutaneous nodules were well-demarcated masses of mature, hypocellular collagen that were consistent with previous reports of nodular dermatofibrosis and renal cystadenomas or cystadenocarcinomas. In addition to diffuse acute medullary necrosis, both kidneys were affected by severe chronic lymphoplasmacytic interstitial nephritis. This is the first known report of nodular dermatofibrosis in a dog without renal cysts, cystadenoma, or cystadenocarcinoma.     

Cardiac tamponade in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

A public aquarium with a 4-mo history of occasional fish mortalities submitted for necropsy an adult female largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) that died unexpectedly. Gross necropsy revealed that the pericardial cavity was markedly distended with partially coagulated blood. Examination of the heart revealed multiple nodular masses in the area of the atrium and two small perforations on the surface of one of the nodular masses. Histopathologic exam of the atrium revealed severe fibrinonecrotic endocarditis and transmural myocarditis with intralesional bacteria. A pure culture of Edwardsiella tarda was obtained from culture of posterior kidney and spleen. An area of stagnant water that may serve as the source of E. tarda was identified, and steps to rectify this problem were taken. Low-level supersaturation was also a significant stressor; the source of the supersaturation was not identified. To our knowledge, this is the first report of cardiac tamponade in a largemouth bass.     

Experimental infection of normal and immunosuppressed pigs with Pseudomonas pseudomallei

A single dose of 5 x 10(8) bacilli of Pseudomonas pseudomallei by intratracheal injection resulted in acute (21 cases) or chronic (19 cases) melioidosis in 40 of 48 pigs. Fifteen (10 acute and 5 chronic) had been immunosuppressed by cyclophosphamide before inoculation. The major clinical signs were initial fever, marked neutrophilia and, in the acute cases, respiratory distress. There were no signs of the nasal and ocular discharge, paresis or diarrhoea seen in acute cases in south-east Asia. The cyclophosphamide treatment caused a significant decrease in the neutrophil count by 7 d after inoculation in all 15 immunosuppressed pigs, and all were culture positive at necropsy. Eight of the 33 non-treated pigs were culture negative at necropsy. Pigs overcoming the initial phase of infection had more abscess-like nodules that were bacteriologically sterile at necropsy than the pigs with acute cases of melioidosis. P. pseudomallei was isolated predominantly from the spleen, lungs and the injection site. Although only one strain was used in this study, it is likely that Australian strains of P. pseudomallei are not as virulent as the south-east Asian isolates.     

Pathogenicity of Actinobacillus minor, Actinobacillus indolicus and Actinobacillus porcinus strains for gnotobiotic piglets

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the clinical significance of Actinobacillus minor, Actinobacillus porcinus and Actinobacillus indolicus strains in gnotobiotic piglets. Twenty-two 6-h-old Caesarean-delivered and colostrum-deprived piglets were intranasally and orally inoculated with 2 x 10(6) colony-forming units of an A. minor (group 2; n = 9), A. indolicus (group 3; n = 5), or A. porcinus (group 4; n = 8) strain. Six other piglets were inoculated in the same way with phosphate-buffered saline solution and used as controls (group 1). All pigs were observed for clinical signs and rectal temperatures were taken until euthanasia 7 days after inoculation. At necropsy, conchae, tonsils, lungs, brains, liver, spleen and kidneys were macroscopically examined for lesions and samples were taken for bacteriology. None of the pigs developed fever. Mild ataxia was observed in one pig from group 3 for 2 days. Clinical signs were not observed in the other animals. In none of the animals were macroscopic lesions detected at necropsy. NAD-dependent Pasteurellaceae were not isolated from control animals (group 1). The A. minor, A. indolicus and A. porcinus strains were isolated from the tonsils of one, two and one pigs, respectively. Actinobacillus porcinus was isolated from the brains of the pig with central nervous symptoms and from the conchae of another pig. The inoculation strains were not demonstrated in the other samples. It was concluded that, using these inoculation routes and dose, the A. minor, A. indolicus and A. porcinus strains had low capacity to colonize the upper respiratory tract of gnotobiotic piglets and demonstrated low or no pathogenicity in such animals.     

Variable nature of border disease on a single farm: clinical and pathological description of affected sheep

The clinical, pathological and virological findings in cases of Border disease occurring on a farm were studied. Fourteen abnormal lambs approximately three months old were obtained and were necropsied within 18 months at death or slaughter. Another lamb born during the study to a persistently infected ewe was also examined. The findings of these 15 animals are presented in three groupings. The animals of group A were persistently viraemic and hypomyelinogenesis was present in two lambs at one and 14 weeks old. Systemic, chronic, multifocal inflammation including nephritis, myocarditis and pneumonitis was found in older sheep. Group B lambs were non-viraemic and the predominant necropsy finding was cystic cerebral cavitation of variable severity. Histological examination showed cerebellar dysplasia and in two animals the retinas also showed multifocal photoreceptor cell atrophy. Lambs in group C were also non-viraemic and although these failed to thrive, no consistent pathological changes were found. It is concluded that the dams of animals in group A were infected in early pregnancy while those of animals in groups B and C were infected at mid-gestation or later.     

Diet composition and blood values of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) fed either supplemented meat or commercial food preparations.

Nutrition most certainly affects health and may play a role in the etiology of growth and reproductive problems in captive cheetah (Acinonyxjubatus) populations. The objective of our research was to examine nutritional differences between two dietary regimens and quantify their physiologic effects on cheetahs held in captivity. Twelve cheetahs were randomly assigned to either a commercial diet (COM) or a supplemented meat diet (SMD) group. These cats were physically examined and had blood samples taken three times over the course of a year. Representative samples of COM and four separate components of the SMD treatment were analyzed over the same time frame for proximate nutrient composition, digestibility, and concentrations of taurine, fat-soluble vitamins, and selected minerals. Concentrations of fat, vitamins A and E, Se, Fe, Cu, Na, and Mn were significantly higher in COM compared with those in SMD samples, with the exception of fat content in turkey. Mg content was lower in COM than in SMD; other nutrients did not differ. Mean concentrations of vitamins A and E in COM were markedly higher than in SMD samples (408,140 vs. 29,696 IU/kg dry matter [DM] and 431 vs. 48 IU/kg DM, respectively) and varied dramatically between sampling periods. Percent crude protein and protein-to-fat ratios were high for SMD compared with either whole prey-based or commercial food preparations. Blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine levels were above normal reference means for domestic cats. Plasma concentrations of vitamins A, D, and E were significantly higher in COM-fed than in SMD-fed cheetahs. Both plasma retinol and tocopherol levels were almost three times higher in COM-fed cats (1.26 +/- 0.06 vs. 0.53 +/- 0.03 microg/ml and 17.5 +/- 0.7 vs. 6.4 +/- 0.02 microg/ml, respectively) and exceeded the normal ranges expected for domestic felids. Significant differences between male and female cheetahs were found for plasma concentrations of vitamin E, Se, and Fe after allowing for effects of diet and time of collection. Excess fat-soluble dietary vitamins can result in direct toxicities as well as nutrient antagonisms and may be linked to reproductive and health issues in captive cheetahs. The high protein levels found in SMD may be linked to chronic renal disease, which was detected in some of these cheetahs.     

High viral loads despite absence of clinical and pathological findings in cats experimentally infected with feline coronavirus (FCoV) type I and in naturally FCoV-infected cats

Specified pathogen-free cats were naturally infected with FCoV or experimentally infected with FCoV type I. Seroconversion was determined and the course of infection was monitored by measuring the FCoV loads in faeces, whole blood, plasma and/or monocytes. Tissue samples collected at necropsy were examined for viral load and histopathological changes. Experimentally infected animals started shedding virus as soon as 2 days after infection. They generally displayed the highest viral loads in colon, ileum and mesenteric lymph nodes. Seroconversion occurred 3-4 weeks post infection. Naturally infected cats were positive for FCoV antibodies and monocyte-associated FCoV viraemia prior to death. At necropsy, most animals tested positive for viral shedding and FCoV RNA was found in spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes and bone marrow. Both experimentally and naturally infected cats remained clinically healthy. Pathological findings were restricted to generalized lymphatic hyperplasia. These findings demonstrate the presence of systemic FCoV infection with high viral loads in the absence of clinical and pathological signs.     

Concurrent multicentric hemangiosarcoma and ovarian teratoma in an aged Père david's deer (Elaphurus davidianus).

A 20-yr-old female Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) died following a 3-wk history of depression, anorexia, and progressive respiratory distress. At necropsy, numerous soft to firm, tan or blood-filled nodular structures, 1-6 cm in diameter, were noted in the lung and the visceral and parietal pleura and within the mediastinum. Similar nodules were also found in the liver, spleen, kidney, and lymph nodes. Histologically, the nodules were diagnosed as hemangiosarcoma. A benign teratoma was present in the left ovary.     

Evaluation of long-term sedation in cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) with perphenazine enanthate and zuclopenthixol acetate.

Two long-acting neuroleptics were used to tranquilize nine captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Perphenazine enanthate (3.0 mg/kg) and zuclopenthixol acetate (0.6 mg/kg) were each administered to separate groups of three cheetahs in a double blind trial. Both products were administered together to a third group of three animals at the same dosages. Behavioral effect, duration of effect, and possible side effects were observed by a predefined protocol. Under standardized holding conditions, the cheetahs were observed 5 days before drug administration and 14 days after administration. Daily activity was defined and statistically evaluated by a U-test. A significant reduction of activity was observed after administration in all three trials. Zuclopenthixol acetate at 0.6 mg/kg alone and in combination with perphenazine enanthate caused inappetence, ataxia, extra pyramidal reactions, akathisia, and prolapse of the third eyelid. Zuclopenthixol acetate should not be used in cheetahs. Perphenazine enanthate did not cause inappetence, reduced appetite, or any of the previously mentioned side effects when used alone. It produced satisfactory tranquilization and is suitable and safe for cheetahs at 3.0 mg/kg. This dosage should be varied depending on health, age, and temperament of the individual cheetah.     

Panniculitis associated with pancreatic necrosis in a dog

A seven-year-old male labrador cross was presented with lethargy, pyrexia and multiple nonpruritic draining skin lesions. The dog had sterile nodular panniculitis which, at necropsy, was found to be associated with a bile duct carcinoma leading to pancreatic necrosis.     

Tuberculosis in geese (Anser anser) in Turkey

Tuberculosis was detected in seven geese at the breeding unit of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafkas University, during 1998. In the necropsy, lesions of nodular type were seen in the liver, spleen, and lungs. Histopathologically, the lesions were characterized by central areas of caseous necrosis surrounded by epithelioid cells, multinucleated giant cells, lymphocytes, and an outer fibrous capsule. Acid-fast bacilli were visualized by the Ziehl-Neelsen staining method in paraffin sections and smears. Inoculation into Lowenstein-Jensen media with glycerin yielded Mycobacterium spp.     

Tumor-associated antigen on bovine leukemia virus-induced bovine lymphosarcoma

Specific tumor-associated antigen (TAA) was detected on enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL) cells by monoclonal antibodies against TAA. One of the monoclonal antibodies, c143, reacted with all EBL tumor cells tested but not with bovine leukemia virus (BLV) antigens. c143 reacted slightly with bovine fetal thymus and mitogen-stimulated lymphocytes from BLV-free cows but not with normal bovine lymphoid cells. TAA may be a good tumor marker of EBL tumor cells. We sacrificed eight TAA-positive but clinically normal animals and examined them in order to elucidate whether or not they had gross or histological tumors. At necropsy, four animals had tumors macroscopically. Three animals had no tumors histologically but had initial lesions showing follicular hyperplasia and the TAA on affected lymph nodes. The one remaining showed medullary hyperplasia in the spleen but there were no findings of tumors. Thus, c143 is a useful tool not only for diagnosing EBL, but also for screening of BLV-infected cattle with potential to develop tumors in the future.