Effect of cosmic rays on computer memories

A method is developed for evaluating the effects of cosmic rays on computer memories and is applied to some typical memory devices. The sea-level flux of cosmic-ray particles is reviewed and the interaction of each type of particle with silicon is estimated, with emphasis on processes that produce bursts of charge. These charge pulses are then related to typical computer large-scale integrated circuit components and cosmic-ray-induced errors are estimated. The effects of shielding (such as building ceilings and walls), altitude, and solar cycle are estimated. Cosmic-ray nucleons and muons can cause errors in current memories at a level of marginal significance, and there may be a very significant effect in the next generation of computer memory circuitry. Error rates increase rapidly with altitude, which may be used for testing to make electronic devices less sensitive to cosmic rays.     

Femtoscale magnetically induced lattice distortions in multiferroic TbMnO₃

Magneto-electric multiferroics exemplified by TbMnO(3) possess both magnetic and ferroelectric long-range order. The magnetic order is mostly understood, whereas the nature of the ferroelectricity has remained more elusive. Competing models proposed to explain the ferroelectricity are associated respectively with charge transfer and ionic displacements. Exploiting the magneto-electric coupling, we used an electric field to produce a single magnetic domain state, and a magnetic field to induce ionic displacements. Under these conditions, interference between charge and magnetic x-ray scattering arose, encoding the amplitude and phase of the displacements. When combined with a theoretical analysis, our data allow us to resolve the ionic displacements at the femtoscale, and show that such displacements make a substantial contribution to the zero-field ferroelectric moment.     

Multiferroic BaTiO3-CoFe2O4 Nanostructures

We report on the coupling between ferroelectric and magnetic order parameters in a nanostructured BaTiO3-CoFe2O4 ferroelectromagnet. This facilitates the interconversion of energies stored in electric and magnetic fields and plays an important role in many devices, including transducers, field sensors, etc. Such nanostructures were deposited on single-crystal SrTiO3 (001) substrates by pulsed laser deposition from a single Ba-Ti-Co-Fe-oxide target. The films are epitaxial in-plane as well as out-of-plane with self-assembled hexagonal arrays of CoFe2O4 nanopillars embedded in a BaTiO3 matrix. The CoFe2O4 nanopillars have uniform size and average spacing of 20 to 30 nanometers. Temperature-dependent magnetic measurements illustrate the coupling between the two order parameters, which is manifested as a change in magnetization at the ferroelectric Curie temperature. Thermodynamic analyses show that the magnetoelectric coupling in such a nanostructure can be understood on the basis of the strong elastic interactions between the two phases.     

Ferroelectricity at the nanoscale: local polarization in oxide thin films and heterostructures

Ferroelectric oxide materials have offered a tantalizing potential for applications since the discovery of ferroelectric perovskites more than 50 years ago. Their switchable electric polarization is ideal for use in devices for memory storage and integrated microelectronics, but progress has long been hampered by difficulties in materials processing. Recent breakthroughs in the synthesis of complex oxides have brought the field to an entirely new level, in which complex artificial oxide structures can be realized with an atomic-level precision comparable to that well known for semiconductor heterostructures. Not only can the necessary high-quality ferroelectric films now be grown for new device capabilities, but ferroelectrics can be combined with other functional oxides, such as high-temperature superconductors and magnetic oxides, to create multifunctional materials and devices. Moreover, the shrinking of the relevant lengths to the nanoscale produces new physical phenomena. Real-space characterization and manipulation of the structure and properties at atomic scales involves new kinds of local probes and a key role for first-principles theory.     

Domain dynamics during ferroelectric switching

The utility of ferroelectric materials stems from the ability to nucleate and move polarized domains using an electric field. To understand the mechanisms of polarization switching, structural characterization at the nanoscale is required. We used aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy to follow the kinetics and dynamics of ferroelectric switching at millisecond temporal and subangstrom spatial resolution in an epitaxial bilayer of an antiferromagnetic ferroelectric (BiFeO(3)) on a ferromagnetic electrode (La(0.7)Sr(0.3)MnO(3)). We observed localized nucleation events at the electrode interface, domain wall pinning on point defects, and the formation of ferroelectric domains localized to the ferroelectric and ferromagnetic interface. These results show how defects and interfaces impede full ferroelectric switching of a thin film.     

Microprocessors: from desktops to supercomputers

Continuing improvements in integrated circuit technology and computer architecture have driven microprocessors to performance levels that rival those of supercomputers-at a fraction of the price. The use of sophisticated memory hierarchies enables microprocessor-based machines to have very large memories built from commodity dynamic random access memory while retaining the high bandwidth and low access time needed in a high-performance machine. Parallel processors composed of these high-performance microprocessors are becoming the supercomputing technology of choice for scientific and engineering applications. The challenges for these new supercomputers have been in developing multiprocessor architectures that are easy to program and that deliver high performance without extraordinary programming efforts by users. Recent progress in multiprocessor architecture has led to ways to meet these challenges.     

Odor cues during slow-wave sleep prompt declarative memory consolidation

Sleep facilitates memory consolidation. A widely held model assumes that this is because newly encoded memories undergo covert reactivation during sleep. We cued new memories in humans during sleep by presenting an odor that had been presented as context during prior learning, and so showed that reactivation indeed causes memory consolidation during sleep. Re-exposure to the odor during slow-wave sleep (SWS) improved the retention of hippocampus-dependent declarative memories but not of hippocampus-independent procedural memories. Odor re-exposure was ineffective during rapid eye movement sleep or wakefulness or when the odor had been omitted during prior learning. Concurring with these findings, functional magnetic resonance imaging revealed significant hippocampal activation in response to odor re-exposure during SWS.     

Epitaxial cuprate superconductor/ferroelectric heterostructures

Thin-film heterostructures of Bi(4)Ti(3)O(12)Bi(2)Sr(2)CuO(6+x), have been grown on single crystals of SrTiO(3), LaAlO(3), and MgAl(2)O(4) by pulsed laser deposition. X-ray diffraction studies show the presence of c-axis orientation only; Rutherford backscattering experiments show the composition to be close to the nominal stoichiometry. The films are ferroelectric and exhibit a symmetric hysteresis loop. The remanent polarization was 1.0 microcoulomb per square centimeter, and the coercive field was 2.0 x 10(5) volts per centimeter. Similar results were obtained with YBa(2)Cu(3)O(7-x) and Bi(2)Sr(2)CaCu(2)O(8+x), and single-crystal Bi(2)Sr(2)CuO(6+x)as the bottom electrodes. These films look promising for use as novel, lattice-matched, epitaxial ferroelectric film/electrode heterostructures in nonvolatile memory applications.     

Magnetic domain-wall racetrack memory

Recent developments in the controlled movement of domain walls in magnetic nanowires by short pulses of spin-polarized current give promise of a nonvolatile memory device with the high performance and reliability of conventional solid-state memory but at the low cost of conventional magnetic disk drive storage. The racetrack memory described in this review comprises an array of magnetic nanowires arranged horizontally or vertically on a silicon chip. Individual spintronic reading and writing nanodevices are used to modify or read a train of approximately 10 to 100 domain walls, which store a series of data bits in each nanowire. This racetrack memory is an example of the move toward innately three-dimensional microelectronic devices.     

Prefrontal regions orchestrate suppression of emotional memories via a two-phase process

Whether memories can be suppressed has been a controversial issue in psychology and cognitive neuroscience for decades. We found evidence that emotional memories are suppressed via two time-differentiated neural mechanisms: (i) an initial suppression by the right inferior frontal gyrus over regions supporting sensory components of the memory representation (visual cortex, thalamus), followed by (ii) right medial frontal gyrus control over regions supporting multimodal and emotional components of the memory representation (hippocampus, amygdala), both of which are influenced by fronto-polar regions. These results indicate that memory suppression does occur and, at least in nonpsychiatric populations, is under the control of prefrontal regions.     

The (Me5C5)Si+ cation: a stable derivative of HSi+

The reaction of decamethylsilicocene, (Me5C5)2Si, with the proton-transfer reagent Me5C5H2+B(C6F5)4- produces the salt (Me5C5)Si+ B(C6F5)4(2), which can be isolated as a colorless solid that is stable in the absence of air and moisture. The crystal structure reveals the presence of a cationic pi complex with an eta5-pentamethylcyclopentadienyl ligand bound to a bare silicon center. The 29Si nuclear magnetic resonance at very high field (delta = - 400.2 parts per million) is typical of a pi complex of divalent silicon. The (eta5-Me5C5)Si+ cation in 2 can be regarded as the "resting state" of a silyliumylidene-type (eta1-Me5C5)Si+ cation. The availability of 2 opens new synthetic avenues in organosilicon chemistry. For example, 2 reacted with lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide to give the disilene E-[(eta1-Me5C5)[N(SiMe3)2]Si]2(3).     

氮肥与硅肥配施对杂交稻冈优725干物质和镉积累的影响

以杂交籼稻冈优725为材料,设置不同施氮量(0、90、180 kg/hm~2)和施硅量(0、150、300 kg/hm~2),研究氮硅配施对冈优725干物质积累和镉吸收的影响。结果表明:各施氮水平下,施硅均能够显著促进水稻根系干物质的积累和地上部氮的积累,施氮量为0、90 kg/hm~2时,施硅均能够显著促进地上部干物质的积累;施氮量相同的条件下,与不施硅相比,施硅量为150 kg/hm~2处理可显著增加有效穗数,显著降低水稻千粒质量;施氮为0时,与不施硅相比,施硅可显著增加每穗粒数;各施氮水平下,水稻产量均随施硅量的增加而提高,但在施氮量为180 kg/hm~2时,施硅的增产效果不明显;各施氮水平下,施硅能显著降低根、茎、穗、精米中镉的含量及地上部镉的积累量,但叶片中镉含量升高,施氮量为180 kg/hm~2时,施硅量为150 kg/hm~2和300 kg/hm~2处理精米中镉的含量差异不明显。综合本研究结果,施氮量180 kg/hm~2+施硅量150 kg/hm~2对冈优725的增产降镉的效果较好。     

Low-power switching of phase-change materials with carbon nanotube electrodes

Phase-change materials (PCMs) are promising candidates for nonvolatile data storage and reconfigurable electronics, but high programming currents have presented a challenge to realize low-power operation. We controlled PCM bits with single-wall and small-diameter multi-wall carbon nanotubes. This configuration achieves programming currents of 0.5 microampere (set) and 5 microamperes (reset), two orders of magnitude lower than present state-of-the-art devices. Pulsed measurements enable memory switching with very low energy consumption. Analysis of over 100 devices finds that the programming voltage and energy are highly scalable and could be below 1 volt and single femtojoules per bit, respectively.     

Waking experience affects sleep need in Drosophila

Sleep is a vital, evolutionarily conserved phenomenon, whose function is unclear. Although mounting evidence supports a role for sleep in the consolidation of memories, until now, a molecular connection between sleep, plasticity, and memory formation has been difficult to demonstrate. We establish Drosophila as a model to investigate this relation and demonstrate that the intensity and/or complexity of prior social experience stably modifies sleep need and architecture. Furthermore, this experience-dependent plasticity in sleep need is subserved by the dopaminergic and adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate signaling pathways and a particular subset of 17 long-term memory genes.     

Applications of modern ferroelectrics

Long viewed as a topic in classical physics, ferroelectricity can be described by a quantum mechanical ab initio theory. Thin-film nanoscale device structures integrated onto Si chips have made inroads into the semiconductor industry. Recent prototype applications include ultrafast switching, cheap room-temperature magnetic-field detectors, piezoelectric nanotubes for microfluidic systems, electrocaloric coolers for computers, phased-array radar, and three-dimensional trenched capacitors for dynamic random access memories. Terabit-per-square-inch ferroelectric arrays of lead zirconate titanate have been reported on Pt nanowire interconnects and nanorings with 5-nanometer diameters. Finally, electron emission from ferroelectrics yields cheap, high-power microwave devices and miniature x-ray and neutron sources.     

The nature of the glass transition in a silica-rich oxide melt

The atomic-scale dynamics of the glass-to-liquid transition are, in general, poorly understood in inorganic materials. Here, two-dimensional magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectra collected just above the glass transition of K(2)Si(4)O(9) at temperatures as high as 583 degrees C are presented. Rates of exchange for silicon among silicate species, which involves Si-O bond breaking, have been measured and are shown to be closely related in time scale to those defined by viscosity. Thus, even at viscosities as high as 10(10) pascal seconds, local bond breaking (in contrast to the cooperative motion of large clusters) is of major importance in the control of macroscopic flow and diffusion.     

Ferroelectric Bi3.25La0.75Ti3O12 films of uniform a-axis orientation on silicon substrates

The use of bismuth-layered perovskite films for planar-type nonvolatile ferroelectric random-access memories requires films with spontaneous polarization normal to the plane of growth. Epitaxially twinned a axis-oriented La-substituted Bi4Ti3O12 (BLT) thin films whose spontaneous polarization is entirely along the film normal were grown by pulsed laser deposition on yttria-stabilized zirconia-buffered Si(100) substrates using SrRuO3 as bottom electrodes. Even though the (118) orientation competes with the (100) orientation, epitaxial films with almost pure (100) orientation were grown using very thin, strained SrRuO3 electrode layers and kinetic growth conditions, including high growth rates and high oxygen background pressures to facilitate oxygen incorporation into the growing film. Films with the a-axis orientation and having their polarization entirely along the direction normal to the film plane can achieve a remanent polarization of 32 microcoulombs per square centimeter.     

Enhancement of ferroelectricity in strained BaTiO3 thin films

Biaxial compressive strain has been used to markedly enhance the ferroelectric properties of BaTiO3 thin films. This strain, imposed by coherent epitaxy, can result in a ferroelectric transition temperature nearly 500 degrees C higher and a remanent polarization at least 250% higher than bulk BaTiO3 single crystals. This work demonstrates a route to a lead-free ferroelectric for nonvolatile memories and electro-optic devices.     

Ferroelectric columnar liquid crystal featuring confined polar groups within core-shell architecture

Ferroelectric liquid crystals are materials that have a remnant and electrically invertible polar order. Columnar liquid crystals with a ferroelectric nature have potential use in ultrahigh-density memory devices, if electrical polarization occurs along the columnar axis. However, columnar liquid crystals having an axial nonzero polarization at zero electric field and its electrical invertibility have not been demonstrated. Here, we report a ferroelectric response for a columnar liquid crystal adopting a core-shell architecture that accommodates an array of polar cyano groups confined by a hydrogen-bonded amide network with an optimal strength. Under an applied electric field, both columns and core cyano groups align unidirectionally, thereby developing an extremely large macroscopic remnant polarization.     

运动电场具有磁场特性电场与磁场的关系(2)

Biot-Savart定律是经典电磁学中关于电流的磁场的基本定律,以它为基础,并结合分析经典电磁学中关于磁与电关系的理论,推导出了磁场与电场联系的规律,即运动电场具有磁场特性.磁感应强度与电场强度之间具有如下关系B=(1)/(C2)(VE×E)电流的磁场是电流周围运动电场的特性,在传导电流的周围,由于正负电荷的电场强度相等,方向相反而抵消,所以没有明显的电场,但是随电荷运动的电场潜流,相反方向的电场的运动方向相反,因此向量VE×E却是不平衡的,这个向量就是传导电流的磁场.即电流只是磁场的表面的源,磁场的源是运动的电场或运动的电荷.磁场与电场及运动速度之间是互相垂直的三维向量.电场的时变也是由于运动造成的,所以时变电场引起的磁场也是由电场的运动造成的.时变电场产生磁场不是电磁现象的一般规律.