Mineral profile and variability in vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor)

Populations in North India depend on a number of vegetable crops of which Amaranthus spp. is the most important since it is the only crop available in the hot summer months when no other foliage crop grows in the field. However, reports on mineral composition of leaves are rare with absolutely no information on the qualitative improvement of foliage yield with special reference to minerals. Studies on correlation among the minerals as well as with yield and leaf attributes are also lacking. Hence, we report the proximate mineral composition in 30 strains of A. tricolor along with some suggestions for qualitative improvement of the foliage yield with reference to minerals. Our study showed that vegetable amaranth is a rich source of minerals like calcium (1.7 +/- 0.04 g/100 g), iron (1233.8 +/- 50.02 mg/kg), and zinc (791.7 +/- 28.98 mg/kg). The heritability estimates were high for most of the traits, with potassium and calcium showing high values, while comparatively lower values were recorded for magnesium and nickel. Nickel was the only mineral that showed positive correlation with all the minerals, as well as with leaf size and foliage yield. Zinc showed strong positive relationship with iron (0.66**) and manganese (0.74**), and was the only mineral exhibiting significant positive association with foliage yield. This study would be of use in enhancement of selected minerals in different regions according to local preferences and nutrient deficiency prevalent among the populations.     

Changes in the physiology and feed quality of cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) during regrowth

Abstract A glasshouse study was undertaken to determine the physiological and morphological changes in cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) during regrowth after defoliation. Individual plants were arranged in a mini‐sward in a randomized complete block design. Treatments involved harvesting each time one new leaf had expanded (one‐leaf stage), up to the six‐leaf stage, with the plants separated into leaf, stubble (tiller bases) and roots. Stubble and root water‐soluble carbohydrate (WSC), stubble and leaf dry matter (DM), tiller number per plant and leaf quality (crude protein (CP), estimated metabolizable energy (ME) and mineral content) were measured to develop optimal defoliation management of cocksfoot‐based pastures. WSC concentration in stubble and roots was highest at the five‐ and six‐leaf stages. Mean WSC concentration (g kg^?1 DM) was greater in stubble than roots (32·7 ± 5·9 vs. 9·4 ± 1·5 respectively). There was a strong positive linear relationship between plant WSC concentration and leaf DM, root DM and tillers per plant after defoliation (Adj R² = 0·72, 0·88 and 0·95 respectively). Root DM plant^?1 and tiller DM tiller^?1 decreased immediately following defoliation and remained low until the three‐leaf stage, then increased from the four‐leaf stage. Tillers per plant remained stable until the four‐leaf stage, after which they increased (from 9·9 ± 0·5 to 15·7 ± 1·0 tillers plant^?1). Estimated metabolizable energy concentration (MJ kg^?1 DM) was significantly lower at the six‐leaf stage (11·01 ± 0·06) than at any previous leaf regrowth stage, whereas CP concentration (g kg^?1 DM) decreased with regrowth to the six‐leaf stage. Both the levels of ME and CP concentrations were indicative of a high quality forage throughout regrowth (11·37 ± 0·04 and 279 ± 8·0 for ME and CP respectively). Results from this study give a basis for determining appropriate criteria for grazing cocksfoot‐based pastures. The optimal defoliation interval for cocksfoot appears to be between the four‐ and five‐leaf stages of regrowth. Delaying defoliation to the four‐leaf stage allows time for replenishment of WSC reserves, resumption of root growth and an increase in tillering, and is before herbage is lost and quality falls due to onset of leaf senescence.     

Chemical composition of the edible leaves ofPterocarpus mildbraedii

Proximate composition, mineral element content, amino acid profile and the levels of some antinutrients in the edible leaves ofPterocarpus mildbraedii were determined. Moisture content was assayed as 85.12 percent (wet weight). Protein, fat, ash and fibre contents of the leaf (percent dry weight) were 25.84, 5.23, 6.44 and 7.56 respectively. Mineral element analysis showed high levels of calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron, copper, manganese and zinc. However, the level of sodium in the vegetable was low. Amino acid profile indicated that the leaf is rich in essential amino acids. The antinutrient levels of hydrogen cyanide and oxalate were low. The paper suggests the need to meet nutrient requirements through an increased use of this cheap but less popular food item with good nutritive potential.     

Plastic mulch and indigenous microorganism effects on yield and yield components of cauliflower and tomato in inland and coastal regions of Bangladesh

Production gaps exist in vegetable crops at the farm level in inland and coastal regions of Bangladesh and these gaps could be minimized using different innovative/new agricultural technologies and improved crop management practices. The present study was conducted to compare yield, yield components of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), and income of smallholder vegetable farmers within different innovative technology practices (with plastic mulch and indigenous microorganism (IMO) vs. without plastic mulch and IMO) at Baliakandi, Rajbari (inland region); and Dashmina, Patuakhali; and Charfession, Bhola (coastal region) in Bangladesh. Yield and gross margins of cauliflower and tomato with plastic mulch and IMO were higher compared with no plastic mulch and no IMO, regardless of location. At Baliakandi, Rajbari, cauliflower yield with plastic mulch was 42.5 t ha^–1, which was a 24.3% improvement over cauliflower yield obtained without plastic mulch (34.2 t ha^–1). At Charfession, Bhola, the highest yield of tomato (57.6 t ha^–1) was obtained with IMO compared with tomato yield (49.2 t ha^–1) without IMO, indicating a 17.1% improvement in yield. Similar trends were obtained at Dashmina, Patuakhali. The difference in gross margin between tomato with and without plastic mulch was US$ 1146 ha^–1 at Dashmina, Patuakhali. Similar trends were obtained in other locations. Innovative agricultural technologies have the potential to increase yield and income of smallholder vegetable farmers in inland and coastal regions of Bangladesh.     

Correlations of yield and quality traits between immature and mature seed stages of edamame soybean

Breeding programs must harvest edamame soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] at the immature (R6) stage for yield and quality determinations, and at the mature (R8) stage for seed-source purposes. If correlations of important breeding traits between the R6 and R8 stages were strong, breeders could perform indirect selection, at least during early stages in the breeding process, thus saving resources and time. The objective of this research was to estimate correlation coefficients between the R6 and R8 stages of edamame for key traits, including yield, texture, protein, mineral, and soluble sugar content. Three edamame lines and a conventional cultivar were grown at two Arkansas locations for 3 years. Correlation coefficients were strong and positive between the R6 and R8 stages for protein (r = 0.74), iron (r = 0.73), and texture (r = 0.72), and moderate and positive for yield (r = 0.67), sucrose (r = 0.58), and calcium (r = 0.57). In conclusion, breeders could perform indirect selection for high yield, soft texture, and high protein and sucrose contents using mature seeds.     

Growth of sugarcane under high input conditions in tropical Australia. I. Radiation use,biomass accumulation and partitioning

There is little detailed information on yield accumulation in sugarcane under high-input conditions, which can be used to quantify the key physiological parameters contributing to yield variation. Sugarcane is grown under plant and ratoon crop conditions. This study analysed canopy development, radiation interception and biomass accumulation of two contrasting cultivars of sugarcane under irrigation during the same season under plant and ratoon crop conditions. Over the 15 month season, 11 crop samplings were conducted. Biomass partitioning to stalk was also measured to determine to what extent differences in partitioning between cultivars under ratoon and plant crop conditions contribute to differential productivity. The key findings were: (1) The ratoon crop accumulated biomass more quickly than the plant crop during the first 100 days of growth due to higher stalk number, faster canopy development and greater radiation interception. For similar reasons, cultivar Q138 had higher early biomass production than cultivar Q117 in the plant crop. (2) Early differences in biomass accumulation due to crop class became negligible at about 220 days because maximum RUE of the plant crop (1.72 ± 0.01 g MJ⁻¹) was 8% higher than in the first ratoon crop (1.59 ± 0.08 g MJ⁻¹). The higher maximum RUE in the plant crop was consistent with a higher crop growth rate (35.1 ± 2.3 versus 31.0 ± 3.4 g m⁻² d⁻¹) during the linear phase of biomass accumulation. (3) Biomass accumulation, which ceased about 300 days after planting/ratooning and 140 days before final harvest, attained similar levels of 53–58 t ha⁻¹ in all four crops. (4) The plateau in biomass was associated with loss of live millable stalks, and not a cessation in the growth rate of individual stalks. The crops continued to intercept radiation while on the biomass plateau, so that average RUEs at final harvest were much lower than the maximum values. (5) There was no effect of crop class or cultivar on the fraction of biomass in the leaf and millable stalk components. This study emphasizes that maximising early radiation interception and biomass accumulation will not necessarily lead to higher yield in an environment where biomass production reaches a plateau well before final harvest. Loss of live millable stalks late in the crop cycle results in poor utilisation of intercepted radiation.     

不同基因型小麦产量和氮利用效率的差异及其相互关系

为给氮高效利用小麦品种的选育提供科学依据,通过土培盆栽试验,以河南省大面积种植的20个小麦品种为材料,比较分析了不施氮(N0)、施纯氮180 kg·hm-2 (N180)、360 kg·hm-2 (N360)三种施氮水平下不同基因型小麦产量、氮素积累量、氮利用效率和氮响应度的差异及其相互关系.结果表明,在同一施氮水平下,不同基因型间、相同基因型不同施氮水平间小麦产量、氮积累总量、氮利用效率和氮响应度存在显著差异.与N0相比,施氮处理的籽粒产量、生物学产量、籽粒氮素积累量、氮素积累总量均显著提高,大多数品种的收获指数表现为施氮处理大于不施氮处理,但多数小麦品种的氮素收获指数却随施氮水平增加而降低.相关分析表明,籽粒产量与氮素积累量呈极显著正相关(rN0=0.944**,rN180＝0.919**,rNs60＝0.981**),氮利用效率与氮素积累量之间亦呈极显著正相关(rN0=0.944*,rN180 =0.919*,rN360＝0.982*).以氮利用效率和氮响应度为指标进行系统聚类分析,将供试基因型划分为高效弱响应、高效强响应、低效弱响应和低效强响应4种类型.由此说明,在现代高产小麦的育种过程中,高肥育种兼顾低肥水平下的表现,在一定范围内可同时对小麦氮高效利用和氮强响应型进行遗传选择.     

Evaluation of new clones of Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) for inulin and sugar yield from stalks and tubers

Six clones of Jerusalem artichoke, five new clones (coded as 17, 22, 56, 69 and 70) and the control cultivar “Violette de Rennes” were evaluated for variability in sugars yield, when the plant is utilised as stalk, tuber and “integral crop”.Among the above harvesting methods, the integral crop (stalks and tubers at flowering time), showed the highest yield potential of total sugars (fructose+glucose) and inulin (18.6 and 17.9 t/ha, respectively). This was obtained by the clone Violette de Rennes, which also had the greatest inulin chain length, in the text reported as average degree of polymerisation (DP).Clone 69 produced the highest yield of sugars and inulin, when the stalks are harvested at flowering (10.4 and 8.0 t/ha, respectively), while clone 17, with the conventional harvest of tubers at the end of crop cycle, reached 13.3 and 13.7 t/ha of total sugars and inulin, respectively. The average inulin chain length (DP) was highest at flowering time in both stalks and tubers with a range of 7.5–11.2 in the genotypes studied, while, at the final harvest of tubers, it significantly decreased reaching values ranging from 4.8 to 6.7. Among the organs analysed, the tubers at stalk harvest, showed both the highest inulin content and the longest inulin chain, expressed as DP.The genetic variability was very high among the clones for the other characters studied, such as flowering time, sugar content in different organs, photosynthesis activity, leaf chlorophyll content, etc. In particular, the “refractometrically measured” solids, in extracted tissue juice, expressed as the Brix-value (a very quick method), exhibited a significant positive relationship with the tuber inulin content (0.90^** and 0.85^**, n=6, in the first and second harvest, respectively), confirming its suitability as a fast screening method in breeding, avoiding time consuming and expensive laboratory analysis.     

小麦灌浆中期旗叶黄化速率与产量性状及部分品质性状的关系

为了给高产、优质小麦育种和栽培提供参考依据,以50个小麦基因型为试验材料,研究不同小麦基因型间灌浆中期旗叶黄化速率的差异及其与产量性状和部分品质指标的关系。结果表明：（1）不同小麦基因型间灌浆中期旗叶黄化速率差异极显著;（2）灌浆中期旗叶黄化速率与穗粒数、千粒重和穗粒重呈负相关,相关系数（R）分别为-0.171、-0.405^**和-0.369^**;（3）灌浆中期旗叶黄化速率与蛋白质含量、湿面筋含量和沉降值的相关系数（R）分别为-0.085、-0.111和-0.045,相关不显著。     

不同玉米品种倒伏抗性与产量相关性状的聚类和相关分析

以32个山东省主要推广玉米品种为材料,对其茎秆性状和产量性状进行聚类分析及相关性分析。结果表明,当阈值为16.67时,分为抗倒性相对较强和相对较弱两大类。茎秆抗推力和茎粗在不同类玉米品种中差异显著,茎秆抗推力与茎粗表现为极显著正相关,相关系数为0.45**。抗倒伏强的玉米品种,单株产量比抗倒性弱的品种增加了31.99%,单株产量与茎秆抗推力和茎粗表现为极显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.46**、0.44**。穗长、穗粗和百粒重与单株产量表现出极显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.60**、0.62**和0.57**;穗粗和百粒重与茎秆抗推力表现出极显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.47**和0.44**。增加茎秆抗推力、茎粗和穗粗有利于提高品种抗倒能力和单株产量。     

The effect of processing on total organic acids content and mineral availability of simulated cassava-vegetable diets

Changes in pH, titratable acidity and mineral content (Ca, Fe, Mg, Zn) were estimated in processed cassava products while the mineral content of raw and blanched amaranthus vegetable was determined. pH of fresh cassava (6.5) decreased as total organic acid (0.07%) increased with fermentation period. Fufu and lafun had the lowest pH and the highest total organic acids contents. Fermentation of cassava increased the total calcium and iron contents, reduced magnesium level while zinc remained fairly constant in grated cassava but was reduced when soaked in water (for the preparation of fufu and lafun). Fermentation also increased the availability of these selected minerals in both cassva products and simulated cassava-vegetable diets. Blanching reduced the mineral content of amaranthus vegetable but increased mineral availability. Fermentation of cassava and blanching of vegetables play an important role in making minerals more available and these processing methods should be encouraged to potentially ameliorate the disease states associated with mineral deficiency.     

Foliar sprays of concentrated urea at maturity of pigeonpea to induce defoliation and increase its residual benefit to wheat

The pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) crop retains appreciable amounts of green foliage even after reaching physiological maturity, which if allowed to defoliate, could augment the residual benefit of pigeonpea to the following wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in a pigeonpea–wheat rotation. The effect of addition of leaves present on mature pigeonpea crop to the soil was examined on the following wheat during the 1999/2000 growing season at Patancheru (17°4′N, 78°2′E) and during the 2001–2003 growing seasons at Modipuram (29°4′N, 77°8′E). At Patancheru, an extra-short-duration pigeonpea cultivar ICPL 88039 was defoliated manually and using foliar sprays of 10% urea (30 kg/ha) and compared with a millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.) crop, naturally senesced leaf residue and no-leaf residue controls. At Modipuram, the effect of 10% urea spray treatment on mature ICPL 88039 was compared with the unsprayed control. At both locations, the rainy season crops were followed by a wheat cultivar UP 2338 at four nitrogen levels applied in a split plot design, which at Patancheru were 0, 30, 90 and 120 kg N ha⁻¹ and at Modipuram 0, 60, 120 and 180 kg N ha⁻¹. At Patancheru, urea spray added 0.5 t ha⁻¹ of extra leaf litter to the soil within a week without significantly affecting pigeonpea yield. This treatment, however, increased mean wheat yield by 29% from 2.4 t ha⁻¹ in the no-leaf residue pigeonpea or pearl millet plots to 3.1 t ha⁻¹. At Modipuram, the foliar sprays of urea added more leaf litter to the soil than at Patancheru. Here, increase in subsequent wheat yield due to additional pigeonpea leaf litter was 7–8% and net profit 21% more than in the unsprayed control. The addition of pigeonpea leaf litter to the soil resulted in a saving of 40–60 kg N for the following wheat crops in both the environments. The results demonstrated that pigeonpea leaf litter could play an important role in the fertilizer N economy in wheat. The urea spray at maturity of the standing pigeonpea crop significantly improved this contribution in increasing wheat yield, the effect of which was additional to the amount of urea used for inducing defoliation. The practice, if adopted by farmers, may enhance sustainability of wheat production system in an environmentally friendly way, as it could reduce the amount of fertilizer N application to soil and enhance wheat yield.     

不同水分条件下小麦ILs群体花后不同器官蔗糖积累与转运的遗传特性

为了探索干旱调控小麦花后不同器官蔗糖积累和转运的遗传特性,以抗旱性有显著差异的西峰20和鲁麦14杂交创建的小麦回交导入系(introgression lines,ILs)群体为供试材料,对正常灌溉(WW)和干旱胁迫(DS)条件下该群体花后不同器官蔗糖积累和转运的相关性状进行数量遗传分析,评价该群体目标性状的遗传变异特点和相互关系。结果表明,小麦ILs群体及其双亲的被测性状指标均表现为SCg(灌浆期蔗糖含量)显著高于SCf(开花期蔗糖含量)和SCm(成熟期蔗糖含量),主茎穗下节和倒二节的蔗糖含量高于旗叶,花前高于花后,干旱胁迫显著高于正常灌溉。在两种水分条件下,小麦ILs群体各被测性状平均表型值均介于双亲之间,且偏向于轮回亲本鲁麦14;群体内表型变异广泛,且存在超亲分离,变异系数为14.29%~57.98%(DS)和20.87%~63.75%(WW),多样性指数为0.63~0.89(DS)和0.57~0.79(WW)。各目标性状表型受水分和发育阶段/器官的影响达显著水平,遗传力较低,为0.27~0.51(DS)和0.30~0.62(WW)。各器官的SCf、SCg和SCm间均有不同程度的正相关(r=0.17~0.56**)关系,SCf与花前蔗糖转运率和花后蔗糖贡献率(r=0.32**~0.94**)、SCg与花前蔗糖转运率和花后蔗糖贡献率(r=0.29*~0.72**)、主穗粒重与花前蔗糖转运率和CRSpr(r=0.13~0.43**)具有较高正相关性,且各目标性状间DS条件下相关系数普遍高于WW。说明小麦花后不同器官蔗糖积累和转运相关性状属于典型的数量性状,其表型变异具有显著的时空特异性。     

Chloris gayana Kunth under different defoliation regimes. Morphogenesis,sward structure and leaf area index

Subtropical pastures are an important alternative to increase forage yields to fulfil cattle nutritional requirements. Despite the increasing expansion of these pastures in the semiarid subtropical region of Argentina, there is very little information about their responses to grazing management. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different defoliation regimes on morphogenesis, sward structure and leaf area index of one of the most expanded forage species in this region, Chloris gayana Kunth. A combination of two defoliation frequencies (300 and 500 GDD) and two defoliation intensities (1 and 3 green stubble leaves) was compared by a controlled experiment that comprised 1,500 GDD. Defoliation frequency significantly affected leaf elongation rate (LER) and leaf area index (LAI). Under the high defoliation frequency, LER and LAI resulted almost half than under low defoliation frequency (0.34 ± 0.08 vs. 0.67 ± 0.08 mm·tiller^?1·GDD^?1; 8.31 ± 2.27 m²/m² vs. 13.27 ± 1.59 m²/m², at 300 or 500 GDD respectively), regardless of the intensity. Defoliation frequency or intensity did not affect leaf appearance rate, leaf lifespan, leaf size, number of green leaves per tiller nor tiller density at the end of the experiment. We conclude that to maintain high LER and LAI in Chloris gayana Kunth cv. Épica INTA‐Pemán pastures, defoliation frequency could be of 500 GDD. Since leaf lifespan was 415 ± 110 GDD, under this defoliation frequency, a maximum accumulation of green leaf tissues with very little dead tissues may be achieved.     

Performance of Dimethomorph + Mancozeb Applied to Seed Potatoes in Early Management of Late Blight (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phytophthora infestans</Emphasis>)

Treating seed potatoes with contact fungicides prevents infection of Phytophthora infestans from tuber to tuber during handling but does not prevent field infections in the young plant. Dimethomorph (DMM) 9% + mancozeb 60% (Acrobat MZ, BASF) can cover both aspects due to the contact and systemic action of mancozeb and DMM, respectively. Experiments were performed under greenhouse and field conditions (three seasons and two locations) with cvs Kennebec, Shepody, Spunta, Russet Burbank, and Ranger Russet. Immediately after cutting, seed pieces were treated with Acrobat MZ at doses equivalent to 2, 3, and 4 kg ha⁻¹. At any dose, Acrobat MZ protected healthy seed tubers against P. infestans infections. Acrobat MZ (4 kg ha⁻¹) also protected the foliage of all cultivars against artificial inoculation of P. infestans, assessed by the detached-leaf method. These effects were observed up to 30 days after emergence in greenhouse experiments and up to 28 days after crop emergence under field conditions in two growing seasons. In cv Spunta, significant foliage protection was observed up to 35 days after field emergence whereas in seed tubers of cv Kennebec planted in sandy soils, significant foliage protection persisted longer. Additional evidence for acropetal translocation of Acrobat MZ in field crops was also found. With this strategy, there is no need to apply contact or systemic fungicides early in the season, and spraying costs and environmental risks are also reduced.     

Micronutrient supply through granular-coated single superphosphate under field conditions

The lack of efficient methods for soil-based micronutrient fertilization in field crops at sowing remains an important limiting factor for agricultural production in low fertility soils. Therefore, we evaluated the efficiency of single superphosphate (SSP) coated with either finely ground zinc (Zn) oxide or manganese (Mn) carbonate to supply Zn to corn (Zea mays L.), and Mn to soybean (Glycine max L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) versus traditional sources (oxide and sulfate). One experiment for each micronutrient was performed under field conditions in two sequential growing cycles: rainy season (corn and soybean) and off-season (corn and oat). Treatments were combination of Zn or Mn fertilizers (oxide, sulfate, and SSP coated with Zn oxide or Mn carbonate) at rates of 1.25, 2.5, and 5.0 kg ha^?1 of Zn or Mn, plus a control. Micronutrient fertilization showed, relative to the unfertilized control, significant increases in shoot biomass at flowering, crop yield (corn silage and soybean grain), and leaf concentration and shoot uptake of Zn and Mn during the rainy season. Residual effect of Zn on off-season corn crop represented a 43% increase in grain yield over the control. However, oat did not respond to residual Mn. The positive effects of Zn and Mn application on crop performance did not depend on fertilizer material, suggesting similar fertilizer-use efficiency. We concluded that banded application of SSP coated with either finely ground Zn oxide or Mn carbonate would be a viable option to supply these micronutrients at the time of sowing in micronutrient-deficient soils.     

Impact and Interaction of Nitrogen and Phytophthora infestans as Yield-limiting and Yield-reducing Factors in Organic Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Crops

For organic potato producers, the two main challenges are disease and nutrient management. Both are limited by regulations that on the one hand prohibit the use of chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogen, and on the other hand prohibit most synthetic pesticides. Late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans is commonly thought to be the most yield-reducing factor. However, because there is no really effective fungicide available to control late blight, there are virtually no yield loss data available for organic farming conditions. In this paper, the state of the art of organic potato tuber growth under on-farm conditions with respect to disease and nutrient management is summarized by field trials and on-farm surveys on commercial organic crops carried out in the years 1995–1998. Soil nitrogen (N) levels, plant N uptake, disease development of P. infestans and potato yield were measured. Results indicated that N availability was most important in limiting yields in organic potato crops. From on-farm data, a model including disease development, growth duration of the crops until foliage decay and different parameters related to N status of the crop could explain 73% of the observed variation in yield. Only 25% of this variation in yield could be attributed to the influence of late blight. Differences in N availability explained 48%. In conclusion, several points emerged from the results. In organic farming, yields are mainly limited by nutrient availability in spring and early summer. The effects of late blight on yields may often be overestimated and cannot be deduced from results in conventional farming because of the strong interaction with nutrient status. Depending on N availability, tubers stop growing between mid-July (70–90 kg N ha⁻¹ uptake), the end of July (110–140 kg N ha⁻¹ uptake) and mid-August (140–180 kg N ha⁻¹ uptake) due to N limitations. The higher the N status of a potato crop, the longer the growing period needed to achieve the attainable yield and the higher the probability that late blight stops further tuber growth and becomes the key tuber-yield-limiting factor. In the second part of this paper, the interactive effects of soil N availability and the impact of P. infestans on yield in the presence and absence of fungicides from 1996 to 1998 for mid-early main crops are reported. An empirical schematic model of disease impact depending on N availability was developed.     

Chemical composition and nutritive value of leaves and stems of tropical weed Chromolaena odorata

Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) has been classified as a weed plant in West Africa. Data from C. odorata foliage after 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 weeks of regrowth showed that the leaf fraction had a crude protein content above 194 g kg^–1 dry matter (DM) and an average leaf to stem ratio of 2·1:1. Chemical analysis of the leaf fraction of an 8‐week‐old regrowth indicated a high crude protein content (258 g kg^–1 DM) and a high degradable nitrogen content (60·7 g N kg^–1 digestible organic matter), but low neutral‐detergent fibre (331 g kg^–1 DM), acid‐detergent lignin (53·1 g kg^–1 DM), total extractable phenolic (37·1 g kg^–1 DM), extractable tannin (0·72 absorbance at 550 nm) and extractable condensed tannin (1·4 g kg^–1 DM) contents. In sacco degradability analysis of the 8‐week‐old regrowth leaf sample showed a high 48 h organic matter (935 g kg^–1 DM) and crude protein (953 g kg^–1 DM) degradability. The leaf sample had an organic matter degradability of 670 g kg^–1 DM as estimated by cumulative gas production in vitro after 24 h incubation. There was little or no phenolic‐related antinutritive factors in C. odorata. Additionally, leaf samples had no effect on rumen protozoa activity estimated as the rate of [¹⁴C]leucine Selenomonas ruminantum bacterial protein breakdown. Data from this study suggest that C. odorata leaves are of high nutritive value and might have the potential to be used as a protein supplement to ruminants. There is need for further investigation to test whether C. odorata leaves may have any deleterious effect on the host animal.     

Evapotranspiration Responses of Plants and Crops to Carbon Dioxide and Temperature

Summary

Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration has risen from about 270 mmol (CO2) mol^?1 (air) (i.e., mole fraction of dry atmospheric air basis) before 1700 to about 370 mmol mol ^?1 currently. General Circulation Models (GCM) have predicted a global temperature rise of 2.8 to 5.2°C for a doubling of CO2. This review examines evapotranspiration and water-use efficiency responses of plants to rising CO2 and climatic changes, especially temperature. Doubling of CO2 will decrease leaf stomatal conductance to water vapor about 40%. However, water use by C3 crop plants under field conditions has usually been decreased only 12% or less for two reasons. Firstly, feedbacks in the energy balance of plant foliage cause leaf temperatures to rise as stomatal conductance is decreased. Increases of leaf temperature raise the vapor pressure of water inside the leaf, which increases the leaf-to-air vapor pressure difference. This increased driving force for transpiration offsets in large part the decreased leaf conductance caused by elevated CO2. Secondly, CO2 enrichment tends to cause leaf area to increase more rapidly in many crops. This increased leaf surface area for transpiration also offsets part of the decreased stomatal conductance per unit leaf area on the whole canopy evapotranspiration, but the energy budget feedbacks are more important.

Experiments point to a yield enhancement of 30 to 35% for C3 crops for the direct effects a doubling of CO2 (without ancillary climate change). If temperature rises, this yield enhancement may be greater for vegetative growth but less for seed grain yield. Experiments on both ambient and elevated CO2 treatments in sunlit growth chambers showed that transpiration rates increased 20% when air temperature was changed from 28 to 33 °C and increased 30% when temperature was increased from 28 to 35 °C. Thus, under well-watered conditions, evapotranspiration will increase about 4 to 5% per 1°C rise in temperature.

Crop model predictions of yields of soybean and maize showed a reduction due to temperature increases by two GCM models. Under Southeastern USA conditions, doubling CO2 in the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) climate change scenario resulted in an 12% increase in yields, but yields decreased 50% in the Geophysical Fluids Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) climate change scenario. Optimum irrigation for both models gave yield increases of about 10%. These model results illustrate the critical requirement of water for production of crops. Under rainfed conditions, crop yields could suffer tremendously if growing season precipitation is decreased, but yields could increase moderately if growing season precipitation is increased. Under the high growing season rainfall scenario (GISS), irrigation requirements for optimum soil water were increased 22%, but under the low rainfall scenario (GFDL), irrigation requirements were increased 111%.

Without the effects of climate change, rising CO2 will cause an increase in crop water-use efficiency (WUE). Most of the increases in WUE will be due to increases in dry matter, with little or no contribution from decreases in water use per unit land area. Growers could produce higher yields per unit land area with higher total production, or maintain the same total production with less land and less total water use. However, if temperatures rise, transpirational water use will increase, and WUE will decline. Higher temperatures, and especially less rainfall, would raise the irrigation requirements of crops. Competition for water resources from other uses could result in less water available for irrigation.     

Biomass yield and energy balance of three perennial crops for energy use in the semi-arid Mediterranean environment

Three different lignocellulosic energy crops (a local clone of Arundo donax L., Miscanthus x giganteus Greef et Deu. and Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis D.C. cv. “Cardo gigante inerme”) were compared over 5 years (2002–2007) for crop yield, net energy yield and energy ratio. In a hilly interior area of Sicily (Italy), two different irrigation treatments (75 and 25% of ETm restoration) and two nitrogen fertilization levels (100 and 50 kg ha⁻¹) were evaluated in a split-plot experiment. In the fourth and fifth years of the field experiment (2005–2007) no fertilizer or irrigation was used.From crop establishment to the third year, above ground dry matter yield increased over all studied factors, in A. donax from 6.1 to 38.8 t ha⁻¹ and in M. x giganteus from 2.5 to 26.9 t ha⁻¹. Fifteen months after sowing, C. cardunculus yielded 24.7 t ha⁻¹ of d.m. decreasing to 8.0 t ha⁻¹ in the third year. In the fourth and fifth years, above ground dry matter yields of all crops decreased, but A. donax and M. x giganteus still maintained high productivity levels in both years. By contrast the yield of C. cardunculus yield fell to less than 1 t ha⁻¹ of d.m. by the fourth year.Energy inputs of A. donax and M. x giganteus were higher in the year of establishment than that of C. cardunculus (34 GJ ha⁻¹ for A. donax and M. x giganteus and 12 GJ ha⁻¹ for C. cardunculus), mainly due to irrigation.Net energy yield showed low or negative values in the establishment year in A. donax and M. x giganteus. In the second and third year, net energy yield of A. donax was exceptionally high (487.2 and 611.5 GJ ha⁻¹, respectively), whilst M x giganteus had lower values (232.2 and 425.9 GJ ha⁻¹, respectively). M x giganteus attained its highest net energy yield in the fourth year (447.2 GJ ha⁻¹). Net energy yield of C. cardunculus reflected energy output of the crop, being high in the first compared to subsequent years (364.7, 277.0 and 119.2 GJ ha⁻¹, respectively for the first, second and third years).A significant effect of the different irrigation treatments was noted on all the studied parameters in all species. Conversely, only A. donax was affected by nitrogen fertilization.