Transport of arsenic in grassland microcosms and field plots

Two sizes of excised microcosms (15 and 30 cm in diameter) and 30 cm diameter homogenized microcosms were compared with field plots to assess the transport of As in a grassland ecosystem. The purpose of the experiment was to determine the suitability of using microcosms for measuring the transport of toxic substances through grassland ecosystem components (soil, grass, and soil water). Arsenic was applied to each set of microcosms and the field plots, at rates of 0, 0.5, and 5.0 mg cm^?2. Results show that As was highly assimilated by grass, with the greatest concentration being 720 ppm. The microcosms were found to represent the field plots in terms of As transport, and offer several advantages over field testing of toxic substances.     

Soil quality variables in organically and conventionally cultivated field sites

This study aimed to answer the following questions (a) which of the soil variables (chemical, biological, enzyme activities and potential metabolic profile based on the Biolog method) could be used as indicators reflecting differences in soil quality between organically and conventionally managed asparagus fields, (b) how the duration of organic management affects these soil variables and (c) in what extent the soil quality in organic fields is comparable to that in hedgerows. The study included four organically cultivated fields which differed in the time they enter organic treatment: 6 years (O6), 5 years (O5), 3 years (O3) and 2 years (O2), the closest to them hedgerow (Ho), a conventionally managed field (CF) and its adjacent hedgerow (Hc). Among the chemical and biological variables, those contributing for most to the discrimination of the organic and conventional fields were mainly microbial biomass C (MBC) and N (MBN) and secondly variables related to N-cycle (NO₃, N organic, rate of N mineralization). MBC and MBN were higher in organic and conventional areas, respectively, reflecting differences in the structure of their microbial communities. The chemical and biological variables did not differ among O3, O5 and O6 fields, while low values of organic N, rate of N mineralization and extractable P was recorded in O2 area. The enzyme activities of amidohydrolases (l-asparaginase,l-glutaminase, urease) and phosphatases (alkaline and acid phosphatase) were by far higher in organic areas than in the conventional one. The activities of amidohydrolases and alkaline phosphatase changed in a similar way, exhibiting higher values in O3 and O5 areas while between the oldest (O6) and the newest (O2) area no differences were recorded. While the suppress of enzyme activities in O2 was related to low inputs due to transition, the negative feedback between supply of N and P and activities in O6 was a possible explanation. The activity of acid phosphatase increased from the newest to oldest organic areas. The potential functional diversity and substrate evenness did not differ among sampling areas. Differences between areas were recorded only in relation to the carbohydrates' consumption. The soil quality of hedgerows seems to be completely different than that of the arable land in terms of all studied variables. Also, significant differences were recorded between the two hedgerows, a fact that could be related to the different management practices applied in the neighboring fields.     

Method for 14C‐labeling maize field plots and assessment of label uniformity within plots

Abstract

There is increasing interest in use of isotopic tracers to study nutrient liberation and transformation in plant tissues and soils. We developed a technique for pulse‐labeling plants in the field with ¹⁴C. Spatial distribution of radioactivity was measured in plots of maize (Zea mays L.) plants exposed to ¹⁴CO₂. Two clear polyvinyl chambers measuring 1 m wide × 2 m long × 1 m high were used to ¹⁴C‐ label maize plants in conventional tillage and no‐tillage treatments. A closed loop in‐line with a pump allowed injection of ¹⁴CO₂ and unlabeled CO₂, and subsampling through an infrared gas analyzer. Cooling and mixing of the air within the chambers was achieved through the use of a free‐standing automobile radiator with fan placed in the center of each plot. The specific activities of leaf tips differed by an order of magnitude among maize plants within the plot. Tillage and time after labeling within the first 48 h had no significant effect on specific activity of maize plants. Plant activity significantly differed by row. The row closest to the inlet and along the edge of the chamber was significantly lower in several plots. Despite differences among leaf tip specific activities, total aboveground activity was uniform within the plot. Plant allometry and plant sampling immediately after labeling would help in correcting for within chamber variability in future field labeling studies.     

Factors controlling aggregation in a minimum and a conventionally tilled undulating field

Wind and water erosion induce breakdown of soil aggregates and loss of soil organic matter. Whereas most of the relations between aggregation and its driving factors have been established on a plot scale, these relations might be very different within an undulating landscape where both erosion (by wind or water) and deposition occur. The aim of this study was to investigate to what degree spatial patterns in soil variables influence spatial patterns in aggregation under different tillage intensities. We studied an agricultural field of about 3 ha in the silty region of Belgium. The site was split into a conventional tillage (CT) and a minimum tillage (MT) system. Within the field, 396 geo‐referenced surface soil samples (0–5 cm) were taken and analyzed for organic matter content, quantity of aggregates and a number of other soil properties. Under CT, 28.5% of the total sample variation was explained by the occurrence of depositional areas, 20.8% by the amount of soil organic matter, and 13.8% by the presence of a clay‐rich B horizon which surfaced due to progressive water and tillage erosion. Regression analysis revealed that 27% of the variation in the quantity of macroaggregates (>0.25 mm) was accounted for by these three factors. Under MT, 27.1% of the total sample variation was related to the surface cover of Tertiary sand, 22.6% to the amount of soil organic matter, and 13% to erodibility. These three factors explained 53% of the variation in the quantity of macroaggregates. In the CT system, the correlation between grass‐ or maize‐ carbon and the quantity of macroaggregates was strongly linked to erodibility, while this was not the case in the MT system. We concluded that at this site, macroaggregation is dominated by landscape‐scale processes (such as water or tillage erosion) rather than determined by the commonly considered local variables (such as small variations in texture or organic matter content).     

Effects of arsenic on nutrient dynamics of grassland microcosms and field plots

Grassland field plots were compared to two sizes of excised microcosms (15 and 30 cm diameter) and 30-cm diameter homogenized microcosms to assess the effects of As on soil-plant nutrient dynamics. The goal of this experiment was to determine the feasibility of using microcosms for screening chemicals which are potentially toxic to terrestrial ecosystems. All experimental units were treated with As, at rates of 0, 0.5, and 5.0 mg cm^?2, by superficial application of dissolved Na₂AsO₄. Calcium, PO₄-P, NO₃-N, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and NH₄-N were determined in soil leachate and soil extracts. Greater loss of PO₄-P, NO₃-N, NH₄-N, and DOC occurred via soil leachate from microcosms treated with the greatest level of As relative to untreated microcosms. Field plots were unaffected by As treatment. Excised microcosms were found to be more representative of field plots in reflecting microbial dynamics than were homogenized microcosms. Thus excised microcosms were recommended for testing potentially hazardous chemicals.     

Spatio-temporal heterogeneity of soil microbial properties in a conventionally managed arable field

Journal of Soils and Sediments - Knowledge about the spatio-temporal variability of soil microbial properties is crucial in evaluating their structure-function relationship and their impact on...     

涡旋式流化床生物滤器水力特性试验

为把流化床生物滤器应用于循环水养殖系统,探讨其较佳的设计与运行参数,研制了一种涡旋式流化床生物滤器,并对其水力特性进行了试验研究。试验装置使用石英砂作为填料,设计了0.18～0.25、>0.25～0.425和>0.425～0.6mm3组不同粒径范围的石英砂和40、50、60、70、80和90cm6组不同初始砂床高度的双因素试验,探讨了石英砂粒径和初始床层高度对砂床流化性能的影响。结果表明:3组不同粒径范围石英砂的临界流化速度分别为(0.061±0.0088)、(0.25±0.011)、(0.48±0.014)cm/s。砂床要保持良好的流化状态,初始砂床高度与床层直径的比值(高径比)需分别大于1.43,1.78和2.14,且高径比与石英砂粒径大小成正比;在相同的膨胀率下,当初始砂床高度增加时,表面流速基本保持不变。床层压降测量显示,3组不同粒径范围石英砂单位床高的压降值分别为(7530.66±215.98)、(6925.66±364.58)和(6790.08±277.95)Pa/m,使用0.18～0.25mm石英砂测得的压降试验值与理论值较为接近,误差在2%～3%。基于Ergun方程,采用回归拟合方法得出涡旋式流化砂床临界流化速度的数学模型,可为流化床的设计和应用提供技术依据。     

Infrared heater arrays for warming field plots scaled up to 5-m diameter

As Earth continues to warm globally, there is a need to conduct ecosystem plot warming experiments under conditions as representative of open fields in the future as possible. One promising approach is to use hexagonal arrays of infrared heaters such as described by [Kimball, B.A., Conley, M.M., Wang, S., Lin, X., Luo, C., Morgan, J., Smith, D., 2008. Infrared heater arrays for warming ecosystem field plots. Global Change Biology 14, 309–320]. However, their plots were only 3 m in diameter (7.1 m²), which limits the stature of vegetation to shorter than about 1 m and also limits the amount of plant material that can destructively harvested. Therefore, we tested a larger hexagonal 5-m diameter array of infrared heaters, which provided a near tripling of useable area (19.6 m²). The number of heaters was tripled from 6 to 18, and their height above the vegetative (wheat) canopy was scaled with the diameter (0.4 times diameter = 2.0 m). Distributions of down-going thermal radiation and of the resultant warming of the vegetation were quite uniform across the plot. Moreover, the same equation previously determined from 3-m diameter plots to describe the thermal radiation efficiency as a function of wind speed was still applicable. Thus, no problems were encountered in tripling the area of the infrared heater-warmed plots.     

Soil organic matter and CO2 emission as affected by water erosion on field runoff plots

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is an important component of the global carbon cycle. Its dynamics depends upon various natural and anthropogenic factors including soil erosion. A study on Miamian silty clay loam soil in central Ohio was conducted to investigate the effect of soil erosion on SOC transport and mineralization. Runoff plots 10, 20 and 30 m long on a 7% slope under natural rainfall were used. Total soil loss, evolution of CO₂ from the displaced aggregates of various fractions, and total SOC concentrations were determined. It was shown that the primary ways of SOC loss resulted from two processes: 1) mechanical preferential removal of SOC by overland flow and 2) erosion-induced mineralization. Significant amounts of SOC mobilized by erosion at the upper part of the slope during the season (358 kg ha^? 1) could be lost to the atmosphere within 100 days (15%) and transported off site (44%). Breakup of initial soil aggregates by erosive forces was responsible for increased CO₂ emission. During the initial 20 days of incubation the amount of CO₂ released from coarse size sediment fractions (0.282 g C kg^? 1 soil d^? 1) was 9 times greater than that in fine fractions (0.032 g C kg^? 1 soil d^? 1) due to the greater initial amount of SOC and its exposure to the environment. Sediment size distribution as well as its residence time on the site was the primary controllers of CO₂ loss from eroded soil.     

Three-year comparison of the content of antioxidant microconstituents and several quality characteristics in organic and conventionally managed tomatoes and bell peppers

Understanding how the environment and production and cultivation practices influence the composition and quality of food crops is fundamental to the production of high-quality nutritious foods. In this 3-year study, total phenolics, percent soluble solids, ascorbic acid, and the flavonoid aglycones quercetin, kaempferol, and luteolin were measured in two varieties of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L. cv. Ropreco and Burbank) and two varieties of bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L. cv. California Wonder and Excalibur) grown by certified organic and conventional practices in a model system. Significantly higher levels of percent soluble solids (17%), quercetin (30%), kaempferol (17%), and ascorbic acid (26%) were found in Burbank tomatoes (fresh weight basis; FWB), whereas only levels of percent soluble solids (10%) and kaempferol (20%) were significantly higher in organic Ropreco tomatoes (FWB). Year-to-year variability was significant, and high values from 2003 influenced the 3-year average value of quercetin reported for organic Burbank tomatoes. Burbank tomatoes generally had higher levels of quercetin, kaempferol, total phenolics, and ascorbic acid as compared to Ropreco tomatoes. Bell peppers were influenced less by environment and did not display cropping system differences.     

Optimizing the use of open chambers to measure ammonia volatilization in field plots amended with urea

Measuring ammonia(NH₃)volatilization from urea-fertilized soils is crucial for evaluation of practices that reduce gaseous nitrogen(N)losses in agriculture.The small area of chambers used for NH₃volatilization measurements compared with the size of field plots may cause significant errors if inadequate sampling strategies are adopted.Our aims were:i)to investigate the effect of using multiple open chambers on the variability in the measurement of NH₃volatilization in urea-amended field plots and ii)to define the critical period of NH₃-N losses during which the concentration of sampling effort is capable of reducing uncertainty.The use of only one chamber covering 0.015%of the plot(51.84 m²)generates a value of NH₃-N loss within an expected margin of error of 30%around the true mean.To reduce the error margin by half(15%),3–7 chambers were required with a mean of 5 chambers per plot.Concentrating the sampling efforts in the first two weeks after urea application,which is usually the most critical period of N losses and associated errors,represents an efficient strategy to lessen uncertainty in the measurements of NH₃volatilization.This strategy enhances the power of detection of NH₃-N loss abatement in field experiments using chambers.     

Aggregate stability in organically and conventionally farmed soils

A range of factors that influence aggregate stability and soil erodibility were analysed for soils sampled from land managed under contrasting agricultural methods. These included: an organic farm; a conventional farm that incorporated organic fertilizers; a conventional farm that only used inorganic fertilizers; and a non-cultivated control site. The stability of aggregates that compose the bulk soil structure (macroaggregates), and aggregates that were mobilized from the soil by simulated rainfall and surface runoff (microaggregates), were evaluated in terms of the soil fragmentation fractal dimension, organic carbon content and ATP (adenosine 5'-triphosphate; a signature of live biomass) concentration. The results were used to interpret the existing physical condition of the soils, the (microbial) processes that contribute to that physical structure, and how both pedogenic processes and existing soil quality are influenced by agricultural methods. The soils sampled for this study were demonstrated to be multi-fractal in nature: soils with greater bulk density were composed of more stable macro-aggregates, which, in turn, fragmented into larger, more stable micro-aggregates, rendering the entire soil structure less erodible. Soil erodibility and sustainable soil management should therefore be approached at multiple scales. The primary control on both macro- and micro-aggregate stability was determined to be the organic matter input to the soil, as represented by measurements of organic carbon and ATP. Organic content was greatest for the non-cultivated soil, which reflects the degradation of organic reserves in cultivated soils. For cultivated soils, it was not possible to differentiate aggregate stability for soils managed under organic or conventional (i.e. using biological and inorganic fertilizers) farming practices, but aggregates of soils that only received artificial fertilizers consistently exhibited less stability.     

Nitrogen isotope composition of organically and conventionally grown crops

Authentic samples of commercially produced organic and conventionally grown tomatoes, lettuces, and carrots were collected and analyzed for their delta15N composition in order to assemble datasets to establish if there are any systematic differences in nitrogen isotope composition due to the method of production. The tomato and lettuce datasets suggest that the different types of fertilizer commonly used in organic and conventional systems result in differences in the nitrogen isotope composition of these crops. A mean delta15N value of 8.1 per thousand was found for the organically grown tomatoes compared with a mean value of -0.1 per thousand for those grown conventionally. The organically grown lettuces had a mean value of 7.6 per thousand compared with a mean value of 2.9 per thousand for the conventionally grown lettuces. The mean value for organic carrots was not significantly different from the mean value for those grown conventionally. Overlap between the delta15N values of the organic and conventional datasets (for both tomatoes and lettuces) means that it is necessary to employ a statistical methodology to try and classify a randomly analyzed "off the shelf" sample as organic/conventional, and such an approach is demonstrated. Overall, the study suggests that nitrogen isotope analysis could be used to provide useful "intelligence" to help detect the substitution of certain organic crop types with their conventional counterparts. However, delta15N analysis of a "test sample" will not provide unequivocal evidence as to whether synthetic fertilizers have been used on the crop but could, for example, in a situation when there is suspicion that mislabeling of conventionally grown crops as "organic" is occurring, be used to provide supporting evidence.     

Nitrous oxide and nitric oxide emissions from maize field plots as affected by N fertilizer type and application method

N₂O and NO emissions from an Andisol maize field were studied. The experimental treatments were incorporation of urea into the plough layer at 250 kg N ha^-1 by two applications (UI250), band application of urea at a depth of 8 cm at 75 kg N ha^-1 plus incorporation of urea into the plough layer at 75 kg N ha^-1 (UB150), band application of polyolefin-coated urea at a depth of 5 cm at 150 kg N ha^-1 (CB150), and a control (without N application). N₂O fluxes from UI250 and UB150 peaked following the incorporation of supplementary fertilizer, and declined to the background level after that, while the N₂O flux from CB150 was relatively low but remained at a constant level until shortly after harvest. Accordingly, the total N₂O emissions during the whole cultivation period from the three treatments were not significantly different. The fertilizer-derived N₂O-N losses from UI250, UB150 and CB150 were 0.15%, 0.27% and 0.28% of the applied N, respectively. However, it was suggested that, due to the low plant N recovery, UI250 had a significantly larger potential for indirect N₂O emission than the other treatments. On the other hand, NO emissions from UI250 and UB150 were 12 times higher than that from CB150, and the fertilizer-derived NO-N losses from the three treatments were 0.16%, 0.27% and 0.026% of the applied N, respectively. Significant NO fluxes were detected only when urea-N fertilizer was surface-applied and incorporated into plough-layer soil.     

坡面径流调控薄层水流水力学特性试验

为澄清复杂地表的水流运动过程、水流水力学参数受流量及地表状况的影响,该研究采用野外标准径流小区实地放水冲刷试验,研究了鱼鳞坑、苜蓿草地、秸秆覆盖不同径流调控措施的坡面薄层水流水动力学特性的变化规律,包括水流流速、水深、流态、阻力系数。研究结果表明：坡面薄层水流的平均流速与水深主要受流量控制,其二者之间呈现幂函数关系;地表状况与流量大小直接影响着坡面流态,对于裸地与鱼鳞坑坡面,流量较小时属于层流与缓流,在流量达到3.0 m3/h时,属于过渡流、紊流和急流;而苜蓿草地、秸秆覆盖坡面均属于层流和缓流;并提出复杂坡面的阻力系数由颗粒阻力、形态阻力、波阻力叠加而成,其大小主要受地表状况影响;阻力系数与土壤侵蚀率呈现良好对数关系。总之,坡面采取径流调控措施后,其地表抗侵蚀力和泥沙搬运的能力明显强于裸地,径流流速明显降低,水流流态明显平缓,水流受阻力显著增加。研究结果对于揭示不同径流调控措施对坡面拦泥蓄水、减流减沙及侵蚀动力学机制有着重要的理论基础和实践指导意义。     

Enhanced denitrification in plots of N2-fixing faba beans compared to plots of a non-fixing legume and non-legumes

Denitrification rates were studied using the C₂H₂ inhibition technique in a 2-year field experiment within plots of nodulated and non-nodulated faba beans, ryegrass, and cabbage. Denitrification rates ranged from 14.40 to 0.02 ng N₂O–N g^–1 soil dry weight h^–1. Mean denitrification increased fourfold in plots of N₂–fixing Vicia faba compared to non-nodulated V. faba mutant F48, Lolium perenne, and Brassica oleracea. The results with and without C₂H₂ treatment indicate that in the field the major part of this enhanced denitrification led to the endproduct N₂ rather than to the ozone-degrading N₂O. Higher denitrification rates of plots with N₂–fixing plants in September seemed to be caused by an increase in soil NO _inf3 ^sup- of about 20 kg ha^–1 found between July and August. Soil NO _inf3 ^sup- and soil moisture explained 67% of the variation in denitrification rates of the different soil samples over the growing seasons in the 2 years. Soil moisture explained 44% of the variation for soil planted with N₂–fixing plants and 62% for soil planted with non-fixing plants. Positive exponential relationships were obtained between denitrification rates and soil nitrate (r=0.71) and soil moisture (r=0.82).     

静电喷雾的多喷头雾化特性及田间试验

针对传统喷杆喷雾机作业时需水量大、叶片背面雾滴沉积量不足和雾滴分布不均匀等问题,该研究提出一种静电喷雾与喷杆喷雾相结合的施药技术。为探究静电喷杆喷雾机的最佳工作参数,明确不同参数对雾滴雾化效果的影响,利用Fluent软件建立了流场、离散雾场和空间电场耦合仿真模型。仿真试验结果表明,多喷头的空间电场分布均匀性优于单喷头,静电喷雾的雾滴体积中径比非静电喷雾减小12.7%。搭建静电喷雾试验平台,以喷雾水压、充电电压和喷头间距为试验因素,以雾滴的荷质比、粒径、分布均匀性和沉积量为试验指标进行雾滴的荷电特性和沉积特性试验。试验结果表明,多喷头喷雾的雾滴荷质比最大值为0.26 mC/kg,比单喷头喷雾提高52.9%,雾滴均匀性变异系数比非静电喷雾减小32.1%,体积中径减小14.8%,上、中、下层叶片正面的雾滴附着率分别提高27.1%、37.3%和45.2%;静电喷雾的最佳作业参数组合为充电电压6 kV、喷雾水压0.4 MPa和喷头间距250 mm。田间试验表明,静电喷头与常规喷头喷雾施药的病虫害防治效果基本一致,静电喷头的施药用水量减少了60%。在满足防控效果的前提下,静电喷雾能增加雾滴在植株下层和叶片背面的沉积量,有效减少田间作业的需水量,研究结果可为静电喷雾技术在大型喷杆喷雾机上的应用提供参考。     

Increased crop yields following application of Bacillus penetrans to field plots infested with Meloidogyne incognita

We found Bacillus penetrans to be pathogenic to Meloidogyne incognita under field conditions. B. penetrans was added to the soil of field plots into which tobacco, soybeans or winter vetch were planted in sequence during 1981 and 1982. Tobacco and winter vetch (1981 and 1982) and soybeans in 1982 showed trends of increasing yields with decreasing pathogenicity of M. incognita. There was insufficient evidence to enable one to declare a similar trend for soybeans in 1981. B. penetrans reduced yield losses caused by M. incognita 23% for tobacco 1981, 38% for winter vetch 1981, 24% for tobacco 1982, 35% for soybeans 1982 and 55% for winter vetch 1982.     

田间便携式平底短喉道量水槽水力特性试验

为了探索研究灌区田间进水口的水量计量,该文在巴歇尔量水槽的基础上设计制作了一种体型简单、成本低的田间便携式平底短喉道量水槽,喉口宽度51 mm、长度774 mm,便于携带和田间安装;通过试验研究了该量水槽的水力性能,观测了24种流量下量水槽内11个控制断面的水位,拟合得到自由出流和淹没出流条件下的水深与流量公式,与实测流量对比,平均相对误差和最大相对误差均在10%以内,满足灌区田间量水精度要求;分析了不同流量下佛汝德数、断面比能沿槽身各控制断面的变化规律,确定临界水深断面位于该量水槽喉口段的中部偏后段;分析了槽内水头损失情况,得知该量水槽最大水头损失占上游总水头的12.10%,相较于长喉道量水槽较小,自由出流条件下槽内水头损失小于淹没出流条件下0.02倍上游总水头。该研究为田间进水口量水设施在中国北方灌区末级渠系的进一步应用提供参考。     

地下滴灌灌水器水力性能试验研究

地下滴灌与地表滴灌的最大差异在于地下滴灌的灌水器出水口被土壤包围，其出流受到土壤的限制。在室内将灌水器埋入土槽中，模拟研究了灌水器类型、自由出流时的流量、工作压力、土壤初始含水率等因素，对地下滴灌条件下灌水器水力性能的影响。试验结果表明：灌水器埋入土壤后，流量是其自由出流时流量的1/2～1/4。方差分析表明，影响地下滴灌灌水器水力性能的主要因素是自由出流时的水力特性和土壤特性。针对测试土壤，建立了地下滴灌灌水器流量计算的修正关系式。