Plant and soil responses to a commercial blue-green algae inoculant

A commercial blue-green algae inoculant (Genesis II) for improving the N content of soils was applied to basalt and pumice soils in a greenhouse pot test with orchardgrass, pinegrass, Douglasfir, and ponderosa pine. Treatments were control (deionized water), live algae, killed algae, live algae plus P, K and S and P, K and S only. Plant biomass yields with live inoculant generally were significantly greater than with the control treatment but were the same as with killed inoculant. Live algae plus P, K and S further enhanced productivity. P, K and S alone produced no increase over the control treatment. Response to the inoculant compared to the control appears to be a result of addition of nutrients present in the inoculant stock solution. Further biomass increases with the P, K and S plus live algae treatment compared to live and dead algae treatments occurred because these nutrients became limiting as N was added. Total organic-N and total C in surface soils were similar in all treatments.When the stock solution was sampled via culture methods, the most prominent species found was Chlorella, a green alga. Anabaena, an N₂ fixing blue-green alga, produced less than one colony per plate on the average. Phormidium, a blue-green alga not found in the inoculant, was dominant on the soil surface at the end of the test suggesting a soil origin for this species. Results indicate that Genesis II probably has very limited potential to enhance blue-green algal populations and, consequently, N of the forest soils used in this test.     

Effect of microcrustaceans on blue-green algae in flooded soil

The ostracod Cypris sp., when present in large numbers, prevented the development of inocula of Tolypothrix tenuis and suppressed inocula of Anabaena sp. added to flooded soil. The waterflea Daphnia magna, when present in large numbers, only had a minor influence on the growth rate or extent of development of these algae. Anabaena sp. was less susceptible than T. tenuis to the two microcrustaceans. It is suggested that grazing by certain microcrustaceans may limit nitrogen fixation by algae in flooded rice fields.     

The influence of blue-green algae on the biological amelioration of alkali soils

Summary Virgin alkali (sodic) soils have a high pH and high exchangeable Na and are often barren. Blue-green algae, however, tolerate excess Na and grow extensively on the soil surface in wet seasons. Experiments using a highly degraded alkali soil (silt loam, pH 10.3, electrical conductivity 3.5 dS m^-1, 90% exchangeable Na) were conducted in soil columns, with or without gypsum, in order to study the influence of waterlogging on the growth of indigenous and inoculated blue-green algae and hence, soil reclamation. The growth of indigenous blue-green algae was initially slow in alkali soil, due to the high pH and exchangeable Na, and depressed in gypsum-amended soil, due to excess Ca. Inoculation hastened the establishment of blue-green algae in both the unamended alkali soil and the gypsum-amended soil, overcoming the adverse influence of excess Na in the former and excess Ca in the latter. Gypsum was effective in amelioration (pH 9.05, electrical conductivity 1.2 dS m^-1, 41% exchangeable Na after 11 weeks) but blue-green algae were ineffective even after 17 weeks. In combination with gypsum, blue-green algae had no additional effect, and the C and N increases due to the growth of indigenous or inoculated blue-green algae were insignificant.Alkali soil reclamation by biological methods requires mobilization of Ca from native soil calcite and the exchange of Ca for Na in the exchange complex. The ineffectiveness of blue-green algae was ascribed to their inability to mobilize Ca. It is argued that current theories favouring blue-green algae as a biological amendment to bring about alkali soil reclamation are untenable and are not comparable with an effective chemical amendment such as gypsum.     

Factors affecting predation by a microcrustacean (Cypris sp.) on nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae

Nitrogen fixation (acetylene reduction) by Aulosira and Anabaena in samples of flooded soil was reduced by Cypris sp. The number and biomass of this ostracod increased in the flooded soil when the animals were provided with Aulosira, Calothrix and Tolypothrix tenuis but not Anabaena. The decline in biomass of Aulosira was prevented by the addition of ethyl parathion to the floodwater. The predatory action was affected by temperature, and the optimum temperatures for reduction in biomass of the four blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) were different. Established populations of Aulosira. Calothrix and T. tenuis were more resistant to predation by Cypris sp. than developing populations.     

Fate of blue-green algae in the food web of flooded rice-field ecosystems

 As part of an integrated pest management project to study the role blue-green algae (BGA) may play in the food web of rice-field ecosystems, ¹⁴C-labelled filamentous and monocellular BGA were used as food for fish, zooplankton and benthic fauna in artificial rice fields in the form of three aquaria. ¹⁴C present in the organisms was then traced by liquid scintillation to follow the manner in which the labelled BGA were consumed by different organisms. In this study the grazing rate of fish (mud carp) was compared to that of benthic organisms and zooplankton. It was found that fish consumed the BGA at the fastest rates and in the largest amounts, followed by the benthic species and zooplankton. It was also found that filamentous BGA were consumed in higher amounts than monocellular BGA. The importance of grazing in nutrient recycling is emphasized. Received: 22 December 1997     

接种比例对猪粪与蓝藻混合发酵产甲烷的影响

在35℃条件下,利用猪粪为接种物,对接种比例（inoculum to substrate ratios,ISRs）（质量比）分别为3.0,2.0,1.0,0.5和0.25时的猪粪与蓝藻混合发酵进行研究,通过对厌氧分批发酵过程中的甲烷产量及特定影响参数的研究,寻找发酵过程中参数变化的规律,结果表明,ISRs在2.0时,蓝藻发酵产甲烷的效果达到最佳。在不同ISRs情况下,整个产气过程符合Cheynoweth方程,决定系数R2都在0.97以上;对蓝藻的生物降解率（Biodegradabilities,BD）的研究结果表明,上述ISRs条件下,蓝藻的BD（%）值分别为46.5,68.5,44.8,29.2和14.2;最后对发酵液中的pH值、挥发性固体、挥发性有机酸进行了研究,初步总结了各参数的变化规律,为蓝藻的资源化利用提供依据。     

Effect of blue-green algae on aggregate stability and rice yield under different irrigation and nitrogen levels

The application of blue-green algae improved the aggregation status of rice field soils under different levels of irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer (urea) and increased the grain yield of rice significantly.     

Dynamics of algal populations and acetylene-reducing activity in five rice soils inoculated with blue-green algae

Summary The dynamics of five inoculated strains of heterocystous blue-green algae (BGA) and indigenous algae were studied for 1 month in 1-m² microplots of five soils previously air-dried or oven-dried. The same soils were then dried and resubmerged for another 2 months to study the effect of controlling algal grazers with neem (Azardirachta indica) seeds on the revival and dynamics of indigenous and inoculated algae. During the month following inoculation, inoculated BGA multiplied to some extend in all soils but never dominated the total algal flora. They rarely dominated the indigeneous heterocystous BGA, and did so only when the growth of N₂-fixing BGA was poor or after the decline of blooms of indigenous strains. Once the soils were dried, two of the five inoculated strains did not reappear. During the 1st month following rewetting, the remaining inoculated strains again exhibited poor growth; however, after 2 months of submergence, inoculated Aulosira fertilissima developed an agronomically significant bloom in neem-treated plots of two soils. Correlations between acetylene-reducing activity and heterocystous BGA populations indicated a major contribution by indigenous BGA and a minor contribution by inoculated BGA to the N₂-fixing activity of the soils during the first experiment and the 1st month of the second experiment. The establishment of inoculated BGA exhibited clear differences among strains but was less affected by the nature of the soil and heat treatment. Neem application might have had a delayed positive effect on the late establishment of inoculated A. fertilissima and favored BGA growth and N₂ fixation by the total algal population.Visiting Scientist at IRRI     

Use of blue-green algae and bryophyte biomass as a source of nitrogen for oil-seed rape

Summary Blue-green algal (Nostoc muscorum) or bryophyte (Barbula recurvirostra) growth on the surface of a brown earth silt loam contained in flooded columns significantly increased soil C (+20.9% and ±23.0%, respectively) and soil N (+25.1% and +9.6%, respectively) after 5 weeks in the surface 0.7-cm soil layer. Differences in the lower layers were not significant since there was no movement of C or N metabolites down the profile, even after 21 weeks. The input of C by the inoculated blue-green algae was estimated at 0.48 Mg C 100^-1 g soil or 0.45g C ha^-1; the bryophyte growth gave 0.5 Mg C ha^-1. N fixation by the blue-green algae alone was estimated at 60 kg N ha^-1 after 5 weeks of growth. Blue-green algae associated with bryophyte growth had fixed 23 kg N ha^-1 after 5 weeks, rising to 40 kg ha^-1 after 21 weeks. Decomposition of the bryophyte biomass led to a significant increase in the dry weight (+16.8%) and the N uptake (+27.5%) of spring oil-seed rape planted in homogenised soil. In contrast, soil incorporation of the blue-green algal biomass had no significant effect on yield. The equivalent mineralized N from the blue-green algal and bryophyte incorporation was estimated as 24 and 58 kg N ha^-1, respectively.     

Effect of green manuring,blue-green algae and neem-cake-coated urea on wetland rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Summary A field trial was set up to examine the effect of green manuring, blue-green algae, and neem-cake-coated urea on a rice crop. Summer green manuring using Sesbania aculeata increased the crop yield. Inoculation of blue-green algae increased the rice grain yield when 60 kg N ha^-1 was applied as prilled urea, but the increase in grain yield was greater when 60 kg N ha^-1 was applied as neem-cake-coated urea. The results of the present study show that applications of green manure, neem-cake-coated urea, and blue-green algae are complementary and that the three treatments can be used together in the rice ecosystem. The green manure and the fertilizer treatments had no effect on the algal flora of the soil.     

Chemical composition of cultures and natural samples of N2-fixing blue-green algae from rice fields

Summary Laboratory cultures, soil cultures, and natural samples of N₂-fixing blue-green algae (BGA) from rice fields were analyzed for dry matter, ash, N, C, P, and a few other constituents.Results show a very large variability of the composition. Dry matter contents ranged from 0.28% to 13.6% (average 3.3%). Ash contents ranged from 15.6% to 71.3%. Nitrogen contents ranged from 1.9% to 11.8% on an ash-free basis (average 6%). Carbon content was less variable, ranging from 37% to 72% and averaging 43.7%.A decrease in N and pigment contents, and an increase in reducing sugars, was observed in aging laboratory cultures.Large differences in composition were observed between field samples and material grown in artificial medium. Soil-grown BGA and field samples were characterized by very high ash contents, N contents lower than those in laboratory cultures, and P deficiency.Extrapolation from (1) average dry matter, ash, and N contents and (2) records of BGA biomass in rice fields indicates that an algal bloom has a potentiality of about 15–25 kg N per hectare and that a BGA biomass of agronomic significance is visible to the naked eye.     

Beneficial effects of blue-green algae and Azolla, excluding supplying nitrogen, on wetland rice fields: a review

 The role of blue-green algae (BGA) and Azolla in supplying N to rice fields is well documented. In addition, they also bring about, directly or indirectly, a number of changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and soil-water interface in rice fields. For example, BGA liberate extracellular organic compounds and photosynthetic O₂ during their growth, while Azolla prevent a rise in the pH, reduce water temperature, curb NH₃ volatilisation and suppress weeds; and both of them contribute biomass. On decomposing, they influence the redox activity and result in the formation of different organic acids in soil. All such changes brought about by BGA and Azolla in soil may ultimately influence plant-available nutrients and also soil characteristics. An attempt has been made in this review to highlight these effects of BGA and Azolla in rice fields and discuss their possible implications relating to management and productivity of rice-field systems. Received: 4 February 1998     

Metal residues in soils previously treated with sewage-sludge and their effects on growth and nitrogen fixation by blue-green algae

Nitrogen-fixation was measured in illuminated laboratory incubations of soils containing different concentrations of Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd. The soils were taken from field experiments that had received either farmyard manure (low-metal soils) between 1942–67 or metal-contaminated sewage-sludge (high-metal soils) between 1942–61 so that the last metal inputs from sewage-sludge were more than 20 years ago.Colonies of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and other microorganisms developed rapidly on the surface of low-metal soil and after a 14 day lag there was a rapid increase in rate of C₂H₂-reduction, indicative of N₂-fixation. C₂H₂-reduction reached a maximum rate after about 28 days then slowly declined. In contrast, colonisation of the surface of high-metal soil was very much poorer. C₂H₂-reduction only commenced after 50 days, reaching only about a third of the rate in the low-metal soil by 118 days, when the experiment ended.In another experiment the low-metal soil fixed about 10 times as much ¹⁵N-labelled N₂ as the high-metal soil. The ratio C₂H₂ reduced-to-N₂ fixed was 5.Measurements of total C₂H₂-reduction were made during a 60 day incubation on soils sampled on a transect from the middle of a low-metal farmyard manure (FYM) plot to the middle of a high-metal sludge plot. There was a negative correlation (r = −0.78) between total C₂H₂-reduction and increasing distance along the transect, corresponding to increasing soil concentrations of Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd with increasing distance. Total C₂H₂-reduction was decreased by 50% at about 50 μg EDTA-extractable Zn, 20 μg Cu, 2.5 μg Ni and 3 μg total Cd g⁻¹ soil. Because the amounts of metals in the soils were closely correlated with each other there was a similar relationship with Zinc Equivalent. At half the current permitted U.K. metal loading based on Zinc Equivalent, C₂H₂-reduction was also decreased by about 50%.     

The abundance of heterocystous blue-green algae in rice soils and inocula used for application in rice fields

Summary Algal populations were quantified (as colony-forming units [CFU] per square centimetre) in 102 samples of rice soils from the Philippines, India, Malaysia and Portugal, and in 22 samples of soil-based inocula from four countries. Heterocystous blue-green algae (BGA) were present in all samples. Nostoc was the dominant genus in most samples, followed by Anabaena and Calothrix. In soils, heterocystous BGA occurred at densities ranging from 1.0 × 10² to 8.0 × 10⁶ CFU/cm² (median 6.4 × 10⁴) and comprised, on average, 9% of the total CFU of algae. Their abundance was positively correlated with the pH and the available P content of the soils. In soil-based inocula, heterocystous BGA occurred at densities ranging from 4.6 × 10⁴ to 2.8 × 10⁷ CFU/g dw (dry weight), comprising only a moderate fraction (average 13%) of the total algae. In most soils, the density of indigenous N₂-fixing BGA was usually higher than that attained by applying recommended rates of soil-based inoculum. Whereas research on the practical utilization of BGA has been mostly directed towards inoculation with foreign strains, our results suggest that attention should also be given to agricultural practices that enhance the growth of indigenous strains already adapted to local environmental conditions.Maître de Recherches ORSTOM (France), Visiting Scientist at IRRI     

The effect of surface growth of blue-green algae and bryophytes on some microbiological,biochemical, and physical soil properties

Summary The influence of surface growth of inoculated cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) on subsurface properties of a brown earth, silt loam soil was studied in reconstituted flooded soil columns. One blue-green algae species, Nostoc muscorum, become dominant within the first 7 days of inoculation. In light control columns (not inoculated) a bryophyte, Barbula recurvirostra, was dominant although significant growth of indigenous blue-green algae occurred. The blue-green algae counts were in the range of 1×10⁶ g^-1 dry soil in the surface layer (0–0.7 cm) in both columns. Any effect of surface phototrophic growth on soil properties was restricted to the surface layer. In inoculated columns there was a twofold increase in microbial biomass and an eightfold increase in bacterial numbers by week 13. However, bacterial numbers declined so that there was only a 2.8-fold increase by week 21. Dehydrogenase (x2.1), urease (x2.8) and phosphatase (x3.1) activities and polysaccharides (+69%) increased by week 21 as a result of the blue-green algae inoculation along with a significant improvement in soil aggregation. However, similar increases occurred in the light control columns, indicating that given appropriate conditions of light and moisture indigenous species may be ultimately as effective as introduced species in bringing about biochemical and microbiological changes to soil.     

Toxicity of lead nitrate to algae

The fixation of radioactive C was used to mesaure the toxicity of Pb(NO₃)₂ to five species of freshwater algae. Portions of unialgal cultures were inoculated into low salt medium and were used to test all species at 10, 20 and 30 ppm Pb. This medium approximated the salt concentrations of natural aquatic environments. Three different cell weights were used for each concentration of Pb and for the control to determine a relationship between cell weight and toxicity. The concentration of Pb causing a 50% reduction of¹⁴CO₂ fixation as compared to the control was called the ED₅₀ (median effective dose). These values were extrapolated from graphs of ppm Pb vs dpm mg^?1 dry cell weight. The ED₅₀ for three of the species tested (Anabaena, Chlamydomonas andNavicula) was between 15 and 18 ppm Pb. A desmid,Cosmarium, had an ED₅₀ of 5 ppm. This species has a higher surface: volume ratio than the other species tested and this may account for its increased sensitivity. An ED₅₀ forOchromonas was not obtained. Throughout this experiment the fixation of¹⁴CO₂ increased with increasing Pb concentrations and is not readily explained.     

Gelation of edible blue-green algae protein isolate (Spirulina platensis Strain Pacifica): thermal transitions, rheological properties, and molecular forces involved

Proteins isolated from blue-green algae Spirulina platensis strain Pacifica were characterized by visible absorption, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), viscometry, and dynamic oscillatory rheological measurements. Unique thermal unfolding, denaturation, aggregation, and gelation of the algal protein isolate are presented. DSC analysis showed that thermal transitions occur at about 67 and 109 degrees C at neutral pH. Calcium chloride stabilized the quaternary structure against denaturation and shifted the transitions at higher temperatures. Viscometric studies of Spirulina protein isolate as a function of temperature showed that the onset of the viscosity increase is closely related to the dissociation-denaturation process. Lower viscosities were observed for the protein solutions dissolved at pH 9 due to an increased protein solubility. Solutions of Spirulina protein isolate form elastic gels during heating to 90 degrees C. Subsequent cooling at ambient temperatures caused a further pronounced increase in the elastic moduli and network elasticity. Spirulina protein isolate has good gelling properties with fairly low minimum critical gelling concentrations of about 1.5 and 2.5 wt % in 0.1 M Tris buffer, pH 7, and with 0.02 M CaCl(2) in the same buffer, respectively. It is suggested that mainly the interactions of exposed hydrophobic regions generate the molecular association, initial aggregation, and gelation of the protein isolate during the thermal treatment. Hydrogen bonds reinforce the network rigidity of the protein on cooling and further stabilize the structure of Spirulina protein gels but alone are not sufficient to form a network structure. Intermolecular sulfhydryl and disulfide bonds were found to play a minor role for the network strength of Spirulina protein gels but affect the elasticity of the structures formed. Both time and temperature at isothermal heat-induced gelation within 40-80 degrees C affect substantially the network formation and the development of elastic modulus of Spirulina protein gels. This is also attributed to the strong temperature dependence of hydrophobic interactions. The aggregation, denaturation, and gelation properties of Spirulina algal protein isolate are likely to be controlled from protein-protein complexes rather than individual protein molecules.     

Changes to soil physical properties after grazing exclusion

Abstract. The potential for degraded physical properties of soil to regenerate naturally after exclusion of grazing animals was examined at a long-term stocking rate trial near Armidale, New South Wales, Australia. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity was measured before grazing was excluded, and after 7 months and 2.5 years' grazing exclusion. These data were compared with controls grazed at 10,15 and 20 sheep/ha. After 2.5 years, there were significant increases in unsaturated hydraulic conductivity at 5 and 15 mm tension in the ungrazed treatments compared with the grazed controls. The unsaturated hydraulic conductivities and bulk density of surface soils under pasture which had been ungrazed for 2.5 years were comparable to those where the pasture had been ungrazed for 27 years. We speculate that the natural amelioration of soil physical properties in these soils was due to biological activity and wetting and drying cycles, in the absence of the compactive effect of animal treading.     

The effects of lead on algae

The effects of lethal and sublethal concentrations of PbCl₂ on reproduction , viability, and motility of a marine unicellular green flagellate alga, Platymonas subcordiformis, were studied under controlled laboratory conditions. The severity of the effects depended primarily upon the concentration of Pb⁺⁺ and the duration of treatment. Log phase cells were more sensitive than stationary phase cells. Sublethal amounts of Pb (2.5 and 10 mg l^?1 Pb⁺⁺) tended to retard population growth by delaying cell division and daughter cell separation. A lethal amount of Pb (60 mg I^?1 Pb⁺) caused inhibition of growth and cell death. Various intracellular abnormalities resulted from Pb treatment. The flagella were shed or altered in a variety of ways, depending on Pb concentration; motility was least affected by low Pb and completely impaired by high Pb. Normal wild-type cells appeared to be more sensitive to Pb than mechanically sheared (flagella-less) cells and cells of a non-flagellate mutant of Platymonas. Exposure of cells to Pb in non-growth conditions of dark and cold (2°C) had little negative effect.