Applicability of the losipescu shear test on the measurement of the shear properties of wood

We examined the applicability of the Iosipescu shear test for measuring the shear properties of wood. Quarter-sawn board of sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) and shioji (Japanese ash,Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh. were used for the specimens. Iosipescu shear tests were conducted with two types of specimen whose longitudinal and radial directions coincided with the loading direction. The shear modulus, yield shear stress, and shear strength were obtained and were compared with those obtained by the torsion tests of rectangular bars. The results are summarized as follows: (1) The Iosipescu shear test is effective in measuring the shear modulus and the yield shear stress. (2) To measure the shear strength properly by the Iosipescu shear test, the configuration of specimen and the supporting condition should be examined in more in detail.     

Accuracy of shear properties of wood obtained by simplified Iosipescu shear test

We examined the accuracy of the shear properties of wood by the Iosipescu shear test using specimens whose shape was simplified. Quartersawn boards of sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) and shioji (Japanese ash,Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh.) were used. Two types of specimen for the Iosipescu shear test were compared: a standard specimen whose notch angle is 90° and a keyhole type specimen, which is more easily prepared than the standard type. The shear modulus, yield shear stress, and failure shear stress of the keyhole-type specimen were compared to those of the standard specimen. Shear stress analysis was conducted using the finite element method (FEM). The results obtained were as follows: (1) The failure pattern obtained by the simplified Iosipescu shear test was similar to that seen with the standard Iosipescu shear test. (2) The shear modulus, yield stress, and failure stress obtained by the simplified Iosipescu shear test coincided with those by the standard Iosipescu shear test. (3) The principal strain angle and principal stress angle of the simplified Iosipescu shear test were about 45°. (4) It is recognized that pure stress is applied to the strain-gauge regions in the simplified Iosipescu shear test, and it is expected that the shear properties are independent of the notch angle.     

Measurement of the shearing properties of wood by in-plane shear test using a thin specimen

In this research, in-plane shear tests were conducted for obtaining the shearing properties of wood. Thin strips of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla Sarg.) were used for the specimens. Two circular holes were cut along the axial centerline of the wider surface (longitudinal-tangential plane), and then two slots were cut from the holes asymmetrically to each other by varying the inclined angle of the slot with respect to the axial centerline. Shear stress was induced in the area between the holes, which is called the shear zone, by applying a tension load along the long axis of the specimen; the shear modulus, shear strength, and principal strain angle were measured from the shear stress/shear strain relation obtained. Independently of the in-plane shear tests, Iosipescu shear tests were conducted, and the validity of the in-plane shear tests was examined by comparing the test results with those obtained by the Iosipescu shear tests. In addition to the tests, stress distribution in the in-plane shear test was calculated by the finite element method, and the results were compared with those obtained by the actual in-plane shear tests. The following three results were obtained. First, the shear moduli obtained by the in-plane shear tests were close enough to those obtained by the Iosipescu shear tests throughout the range of inclined angle examined here. Additionally, the calculated result of the finite element method also verified the validity of the in-plane shear test for measuring the shear modulus. Thus, the in-plane shear test method examined was effective for measuring the shear modulus. Second, a failure was initiated at the hole edge because of the stress concentration, which was also confirmed by the finite element calculation, and it immediately propagated along the grain in the early stage of the test. Thus, it was difficult to obtain the proportional limit stress and realistic shear strength by the in-plane shear test because of the catastrophic failure in the early stage of the test. Third, since it is desirable that the stress field in the shear zone is close to the pure shear stress condition, we recommend that the slot runs outward from the hole when conducting the in-plane shear test in spite of the independence of the shear strength on the inclined angle.     

Estimation of the shear strength of wood by uniaxial-tension tests of off-axis specimens

To determine shear strength we conducted uniaxial-tension tests of off-axis specimens and examined the proper off-axis angles. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) and katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum Sieb. and Zucc.) were used for the studies. Uniaxial tension tests of the specimens with various off-axis angles were conducted, and the shear stress at failure was obtained. Independent of the tension tests, torsion tests were conducted, and the shear strengths were obtained. Comparing the data of the uniaxial tension and torsion tests, we examined the validity of estimating shear strength by the off-axis tension test. The shear strengths obtained from the tension tests coincided well with those measured by the torsion tests when the specimen had an off-axis angle of 15°–30°. In this off-axis angle range, the tensile stress perpendicular to the grain might have a serious influence on the shear strength, and we thought that the shear strength predicted by uniaxial tension tests should be treated as an approximate value despite the simplicity of the tension test. Other test methods should be adopted to obtain the precise shear strength of wood.     

Shear strengths of wood measured by various short beam shear test methods

We conducted three types of short beam shear tests of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla Sarg.) under various span/depth ratios, and examined whether the maximum shear stress was used as the shear strength. The following results were obtained. (1) In the short beam shear tests under the three-point loading method, it was difficult to have the specimen failing by horizontal shear. We thought that this method should not be recommended for determining the shear strength of wood. (2) In the short beam shear tests under the asymmetric four-point loading of the specimen with a rectangular cross-section, the failure caused by horizontal shear occurred under some span/depth ratio range. Nevertheless, this range was dependent on the specimen geometry and was quite restricted. We therefore think that this method should not be recommended for determining the shear strength of wood. (3) In the short beam shear tests under the asymmetric four-point loading of the I-shaped specimen, failure caused by horizontal shear occurred under the span/depth ratio range wider than that applicable for the asymmetric four-point loading of the specimen with a rectangular cross-section. The maximum shear stress was stable in a certain span/depth ratio range and the value of the maximum shear stress is effective as a parameter for comparing the shearing strength of materials with each other.     

Fatigue of structural plywood under cyclic shear through thickness III: energy dissipation performance

Wood and wood composites have viscoelasticity, and show a hysteresis loop in the stress-strain relationship during cyclic loading such that part of the mechanical work applied is dissipated in the materials. In this study, the energy dissipation performance of plywood specimens under cyclic shear through thickness was investigated. Fatigue testing was conducted under three loading conditions: a square waveform at a loading frequency of 0.5 Hz, a triangular waveform at 0.5 Hz, and a triangular waveform at 5.0 Hz. The stress level was determined to be 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 of the static strength in shear through thickness. The energy dissipation ratio was defined as the ratio of energy loss per cycle to the strain energy per cycle, and was evaluated throughout the fatigue test. It was found that the energy dissipation ratio of a plywood specimen was kept constant during most of the fatigue process for a given stress level and loading condition. The energy dissipation performance was significantly dependent on stress level and loading condition, and became higher according to the damage intensity of cyclic load even if the same strain energy was applied.     

Fatigue life of structural plywood under two-stage panel shear load: a new cumulative fatigue damage theory

The fatigue life of structural plywood under two-stage panel shear load was experimentally examined. Two experimental conditions were determined for two-stage fatigue of plywood specimen: one used variable applied stress and the other used variable stress, loading waveform, and loading frequency, because fatigue life of wood composite under constant load depended on loading waveform and loading frequency as well as stress level. The most famous cumulative fatigue damage theory is the Palmgren-Miner rule, which is the summation of the ratio of the applied loading cycle to the fatigue life under each loading stage. However, the applicability of this rule to the two-stage fatigue of wood composites has not been investigated. It was first demonstrated in this study that the fatigue life of the plywood specimen reached in the two-stage fatigue test did not obey the Palmgren-Miner rule. Here, we propose the new cumulative fatigue damage model by modification of the Palmgren-Miner rule on the basis of the assumption that fatigue damage accumulates with loading cycle on a logarithmic scale. The newly proposed model was in good agreement with the fatigue life reached in the two-stage fatigue test.     

Fatigue of structural plywood under cyclic shear through thickness II: a new method for fatigue life prediction

For plywood specimens under shear through the thickness, a fatigue life prediction method based on strain energy has been newly developed with the fatigue process and failure criterion applicable to various loading conditions. Once the fatigue process and failure criterion of the plywood specimen were determined by the fatigue data measured under a loading condition other than the square loading waveform, the fatigue life of a specimen under various loading conditions could be predicted easily and accurately by the first cycle loading test. The relationship between stress level and the predicted fatigue life was also similar to that between stress level and the experimentally determined fatigue life. The fatigue life prediction method proposed may be widely applicable to the prediction of the fatigue life of solid wood and wood composites.     

Reliability analysis and duration-of-load strength adjustment factor of the rolling shear strength of cross laminated timber

In this study, the duration-of-load effect on the rolling shear strength of cross laminated timber (CLT), with different cross-sectional layups (five-layer and three-layer), was evaluated. A stress-based damage accumulation model is chosen to evaluate the duration-of-load strength adjustment factor of the rolling shear strength of CLT. This model incorporates the established short-term rolling shear strength of material and predicts the time to failure under arbitrary loading history. The model has been calibrated and verified based on the test data from low cycle trapezoidal fatigue tests (damage accumulation tests) in the previous study. The long-term rolling shear behaviour of CLT can then be evaluated from this verified model. As the developed damage accumulation model is a probabilistic model, it can be incorporated into a time based reliability assessment of the CLT products, considering short-term, snow, and dead load only loading cases. The reliability analysis results and factors reflecting the duration-of-load effect on the rolling shear strength of CLT are compared and discussed. The characteristic of this modeling theory lies in that the verified model is also able to predict the duration-of-load behaviour of CLT products under arbitrary loading history, such as long-term dead load case; then, these predictions of time to failure from the damage accumulation model can elucidate duration of load by the stress ratio evaluation approach. The results suggest that the duration-of-load rolling shear strength adjustment factor for CLT is more severe than the general duration-of-load adjustment factor for lumber; this difference should be considered in the introduction of CLT into the building codes for engineered wood design.     

Effect of loading frequency on fatigue life and dissipated energy of structural plywood under panel shear load

Wood-based panels are subjected to cyclic panel shear load caused by wind and seismic forces in such an application as the sheathing of bearing walls. The fatigue behavior of structural plywood under panel shear load with two different loading frequencies was examined. Pulsating panel shear load with a triangular waveform and loading frequency of 0.5 or 5 Hz was applied to the plywood specimens. Stress−strain hysteresis loops were measured throughout the fatigue tests. Fatigue life was highly dependent on loading frequency at more than 0.5 stress level. The deterioration of mechanical property and damage accumulation in plywood specimen was observed to be slower at higher loading frequency at more than 0.5 stress level. Analyses based on energy loss suggest that panel shear load with higher loading frequency causes less damage to the plywood specimen during one loading cycle at higher stress level, and that the fatigue damage accumulation causing failure might be dependent on stress level although it seems to be unaffected by loading frequency. Based on these results, a new fatigue failure model for plywood specimen was qualitatively developed by combining Weibull’s weakest link model and Daniels’ fiber bundle model.     

Acoustoelastic birefringence effect in wood III: ultrasonic stress determination of wood by acoustoelastic birefringence method

Stress conditions produced in wood were analyzed by means of the acoustoelastic birefringence method. Bending load was applied against a wood beam specimen. Under loading, ultrasonic shear waves were propagated through the breadth direction of the wood beam specimen. The velocities of shear waves polarized in the longitudinal or tangential direction of the wood beam specimen were measured with the sing-around method. Bending stresses were determined by dividing the difference between the acoustic anisotropy and the texture anisotropy by the acoustoelastic birefringence coefficient. Shear stresses were also determined. These stress distributions of the beam specimen were in good agreement with those obtained by the strain gauge method and mechanical calculation.     

Estimation of shear moduli of wood by quasi-simple shear tests

A quasi-simple shear test, which is the most direct method for examining the shear properties of sheet metals, has been applied to measure the shear moduli of wood. Buna (Fagus crenata Blume) with variously sized shear regions was used for the test specimens. Strain gauges were mounted in the center of the shear regions to measure the shear strains. The shear tests were carried out to determine the shear moduli in the radial and tangential planes. Apparent shear moduli obtained from the experimental results were corrected by finite element method (FEM) simulation of the shear region, where both shearing and bending are produced. It was found that the corrected shear moduli are roughly independent of test conditions, and their values are in good agreement with the data obtained from bending-shear tests. This suggests that the method employed here can effectively estimate the shear moduli of wood.Part of this research was presented at the 50th Annual Meeting of the Society of Materials Science, Osaka, May 2001     

Combined shear and compression analysis using the Iosipescu device: analytical and experimental studies of medium density fiberboard

The possibility of using the Iosipescu shear test device to study the combined shear and compression behavior of anisotropic materials was examined. Measurements were made using both an original (Wyoming version) and an in-house modified Iosipescu shear and compression fixture. Numerical simulation of the combined shear and compression test was carried out to verify the reliability of the modified device. The numerical results were compared with data from experiments on a medium-density fiberboard. The numerical results show good agreement with the experimental results for the shear test in all the three material directions tested. The shapes as well as the values of the strain fields were similar in the numerical and experimental results. Different rotations of the combined shear and compression device were studied using the finite element method to find the combinations that gave reliable results in shear and compression. It was found that the 45° rotation gave the most uniform strain fields in the section between the notches. This rotation was tested on the fiberboard.     

Utilization of digital image correlation in determining of both longitudinal shear moduli of wood at single torsion test

A sophisticated approach for the precise determination of both longitudinal shear moduli of wood at single test is introduced. The method is based on the combination of the torsion test inducing pure shear stresses in sample and an optical method providing the full-field strain data of such stress state. The proposed procedure of the longitudinal shear moduli determination consists of two main steps. In the first step, the apparent longitudinal shear modulus following the standardized procedure (EN 408+A1) was determined. Secondly, both longitudinal shear moduli were derived based on the apparent longitudinal shear modulus and the shear strain distribution on the radial and tangential sample surfaces. The wood of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) was used as material for the experiments. The exploratory analysis revealed the increasing difference between the longitudinal shear moduli determined in the longitudinal–radial plane and in the longitudinal–tangential plane as the total torsion angle increased as well as with the increase in the average torsion stiffness. Further, the longitudinal shear moduli and the torsional longitudinal shear strength did not correlate well. Therefore, they cannot be used in order to predict each other. Although such findings need more detailed studies, they should be taken into account when designing wood structures.     

Crack propagation in mixed mode in wood: a new specimen

Summary For studies on wood structures it is important to have a reliable specimen for mixed mode loading (I+II) of a crack. A new type of specimen derived from the compact tension shear (CTS) specimen proposed by Richard for isotropic materials has been studied. A finite element modelization for pine (Pinus pinaster) gives calibrations in the RL, TL and TR directions. Fracture experiments show a fair agreement between stress intensity factors obtained by calibrations and by the compliance method.     

Effect of varying dimensions on tapered end-notched flexure shear specimen

Summary An effort is underway by the International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials and Structures (RILEM) Technical Committee 133, Fracture of Timber, to investigate options for a standardized test method to establish Mode II fracture mechanics properties in wood. In this study, varying size and thickness effects on the performance of the RILEM proposed tapered end-notched flexture (TENF) shear specimen were studied. Three sizes and thicknesses of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) specimens with a tangential-longitudinal orientation and density between 400 and 500 kg/m³ were tested. For the range of dimensions investigated, no evidence was found of a size or thickness effect on fracture energy.     

云杉胶合木钢板斜螺钉连接的剪切性能研究

为准确评价斜螺钉连接钢 木节点的剪切性能,探明其受力机理,以云杉胶合木、钢板和自攻螺钉作为研究材料,测试不同荷载方向与受力情况下斜螺钉连接节点的承载性能,将试验数据与国外规范中的计算模型进行对比,提高了侧边钢板 胶合木(钢 木)斜螺钉连接节点承载性能的预测能力。结果表明:自攻螺钉与剪切面之间的角度变化对其在钢 木节点承受剪 压复合应力的承载力影响不明显,当偏转为剪 拉复合应力时,节点承载力明显增大,并在30°~45°获得最大值;剪 压复合应力时,现行EC5公式计算剪 压节点的极限承载力非常不安全;EC5的刚度预测结果在剪 压复合应力区和垂直剪切面钉入时,与试验值吻合度很高,但对剪 拉区节点的滑移模量没有预测性;将Tomasi模型应用于斜螺钉连接钢 木节点滑移模量理论计算时,在45°~90°时与试验值吻合度极高。单颗自攻螺钉的抗拔刚度计算节点滑移模量的方法极为有效,具有较高的借鉴意义。     

Strength properties of thermally modified softwoods and its relation to polymeric structural wood constituents

Thermal modification at relatively high temperatures (ranging from 150 to 260 °C) is an effective method to improve the dimensional stability and resistance against fungal attack. This study was performed to investigate the impact of heat treatment on the mechanical properties of wood. An industrially-used two-stage heat treatment method under relative mild conditions (< 200 °C) was used to treat the boards. Heat treatment revealed a clear effect on the mechanical properties of softwood species. The tensile strength parallel to the grain showed a rather large decrease, whereas the compressive strength parallel to the fibre increased after heat treatment. The bending strength, which is a combination of the tensile stress, compressive stress and shear stress, was lower after heat treatment. This decrease was less than the decrease of only the tensile strength. The impact strength showed a rather large decrease after heat treatment. An increase of the modulus of elasticity during the bending test has been noticed after heat treatment. Changes and/or modifications of the main wood components appear to be involved in the effects of heat treatment on the mechanical properties. The possible effect of degradation and modification of hemicelluloses, degradation and/or crystallization of amorphous cellulose, and polycondensation reactions of lignin on the mechanical properties of heat treated wood have been discussed. The effect of natural defects, such as knots, resin pockets, abnormal slope of grain and reaction wood, on the strength properties of wood appeared to be affected by heat treatment. Nevertheless, heat treated timber shows potential for use in constructions, but it is important to carefully consider the stresses that occur in a construction and some practical consequences when heat treated timber is used.     

测试方法对毛竹顺纹抗剪强度的影响

以4年生毛竹为对象,分别按照国家标准、行业标准和国际标准的方法,进行顺纹抗剪强度的测试.结果表明:测试方法、试件形状以及加载速度对抗剪强度均有显著影响;行业标准的试件形状能较准确测出竹材的纯抗剪强度,综合测试时间,加载速度以0.8～1.5 mm/min为宜.