The effects of heavy thinning on stem quality and timber properties of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth)

A study was carried out into the effects of heavy thinning onstem quality and timber properties of silver birch (Betula pendulaRoth). Comparisons were made with lightly thinned and unthinnedbirch stands. Birch stands from the UK were also compared withsimilarly managed stands from Germany and Denmark. In general,trees from lightly thinned and unthinned stands had similarcharacteristics. Heavy thinning enhanced diameter incrementthrough greater ring width in comparison with the other treatments.The timber properties of basic density, grain angle and shrinkagecoefficients in the radial, tangential and longitudinal directions,however, were largely unaffected. More and bigger branches andgreater stem taper were found on trees from heavily thinnedstands, but these stems still met the current Finnish veneerbirch quality and dimension standards. Comparisons between birchstands, managed by heavy and light thinning, from the UK andGermany and Denmark revealed no meaningful differences in timberproperties. The results suggest that veneer dimension and qualitylogs could be produced in the UK in rotations as short as 40years on good sites if heavy thinning is adopted.     

Early regeneration of Fraxinus rhynchophylla in the understorey of Larix kaempferi stands in response to thinning

The effects of thinning were investigated on naturally regeneratedFraxinus rhynchophylla Hance (Korean ash) grown in the understoreyof a Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carr. plantation, established ona site that previously supported old growth hardwood forests.The regeneration characteristics were evaluated after thinningof the plantation (about 60 per cent of relative density wasremoved). In the naturally regenerated and mixed stands, Quercusmongolica Fisch. was the most abundant tree species in the overstorey,but the understorey of the thinned plantations was dominatedby F. rhynchophylla with six other minor tree species. Fraxinusrhynchophylla was regenerated by four propagation types includingnatural seedling, stump sprout, root sprout and layering. Beforethinning, the difference of average height growth for each regenerationtype was insignificant. One year after thinning, the stump sproutsshowed the fastest growth among the regeneration types. Heightgrowth of advance regeneration was slow in the year followingthinning but then increased rapidly surpassing the other regenerationtypes 5 years after thinning. Thinning had an effect on thecomposition of regenerated trees also by seedling, stump sprout,root sprout and layering in the understorey. Advance regenerationsoccupied the upper understorey at 5 years after thinning. Alarge number of stump sprouts emerged in the plots 1 year afterthinning, while at 5 years after thinning the occupation ofstump sprouts decreased. Root sprouts and layers faded away.Considering the early growth and the composition of understoreyF. rhynchophylla, its advance regeneration has a high potentialto develop into overstorey trees at this site.     

Effect of half-systematic and systematic thinning on the increment of Scots pine and Norway spruce in Finland

Diameter, height and volume increment of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands wereinvestigated in long-term thinning experiments in southern Finland.The measurement period was on average 19 years, and thinningsconsisted of five different treatments: (1) unthinned; (2) selectivethinning from below where thinning intensity was determinedaccording to the number of stems; (3) selective thinning frombelow where thinning intensity was determined according to standbasal area; (4) systematic thinning where corridors were openedat regular intervals in the stand; and (5) half-systematic thinningwhere corridors were opened at regular intervals and the remainingstrips thinned from below, i.e. a combination of selective andsystematic thinning. The selective (basal area) thinning ofScots pine resulted in a volume growth reduction of about 12per cent, but in Norway spruce it resulted in no marked reductioncompared with the unthinned plots. In both tree species, volumeincrement in the half-systematic and selective (basal area)thinning differed only slightly from each other. The systematicthinning resulted in the lowest volume increment. In the systematicthinning, the total yield (m³ ha^–1) somewhat decreasedwith increasing corridor width. In half-systematic thinning,on the other hand, the total yield was not clearly related tocorridor width. A corridor accelerated the diameter incrementof the edge trees. The edge effect progressively diminishedwhen moving deeper into the strip and ended at a distance ofabout 3–4 m from the corridor edge. After the thinning,the height increment first decreased, but later on it recovered.The unthinned plots had more dead trees than the other treatments,but there were no significant differences between the othertreatments. It can be concluded that the prevailing thinningmethod in the Nordic countries, i.e. half-systematic thinning,most probably results in no significant growth and yield losses.     

落叶松人工林间伐技术优化研究*

本文以林分生长模型为基础，将林分的经营指数作为状态变量，将主伐时林分平均直径作为目标，将达到这一目标时林分总收获蓄积量作为指标函数，建立了离散确定性动态规划模型，编制了计算机模拟系统。利用此系统即可对落叶松不同培育目标下的最佳间伐时间、间伐强度和主伐年龄等进行决策。结果表明，优化决策方法在保留株数、间伐次数和总收获蓄积量上都优于一般决策方法，它既可对落叶松林分进行生长预测，也可为制定经营单位的经营     

The effects of thinning treatments on density, MOE, MOR and maximum crushing strength of Pinus brutia Ten. wood

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of plantation thinning on various wood properties of Pinus brutia Ten. Tree samples were obtained from heavily and moderately thinned and unthinned 33–35 year-old plantations. Wood properties were examined in various wood zones including 16 annual rings after the first treatment. The results of this study showed that there was a significant relationship between thinning intensity and radial increment (1.30 m) for an individual tree. Thinning treatments increased annual ring width especially a few years after thinning. Heavy thinning treatments were especially effective in impacting mean ring width values at breast height. However, the percentage of late wood did not differ much between the samples. Based on the results of correlation analysis between ring width and late wood percentage there was no significant correlation identified. Mean wood density was not affected by the treatments. Also, no significant correlation was found between thinning and examined strength properties (MOR, MOE and compression strength parallel to grain). However, a relationship was found between wood density and all strength properties except for MOE. The current results suggest that thinning can produce improvements in ring width without any negative impacts on investigated wood properties. It is recommended that subsequent studies should be designed to understand genetic effects and maximize treatment effects.     

Variation of ring width and specific gravity within trees from unthinned Sitka spruce spacing trial in Clocaenog, North Wales

The aim of this work was to quantify patterns of change in ringwidth and specific gravity within trees of Picea sitchensiswith ring number across juvenile and mature wood, in relationto height in tree, original spacing, and crown dimensions. Fivetrees were sampled from each of three plots on a 52-year-oldunthinned spacing trial at Clocaenog, North Wales. The ring width of wood produced in early decades of the plantationwas most strongly correlated with original spacing, while thatproduced in later decades was more strongly correlated withbranch diameters of the upper crown. In later decades, treesoriginally at the widest spacing had higher specific gravitythan those originally at closer spacing, presumably associatedwith self-thinning of the narrower-spaced unthinned plots. Differencesin amount of juvenile wood between spacing plots were less markedthan those reported from the same plots when harvested 7 yearsearlier; it is suggested that as trees surviving after self-thinningare likely to be those with a competitive advantage from anearly stage, differences between plots in amounts of juvenilewood may become less apparent in trees harvested later in therotation than in those sampled earlier. Underlying patterns of variation in ring width and specificgravity across the tree were found to be modified by a progressivedrift with height in the tree. Linear regressions between specificgravity and ring width also varied in a systematic way; theintercept and slope of these regressions tended to increasewith ring number from the pith, and with height in tree at aspecified ring number. Equations are given as a basis for quantifyingthese trends, but more data are needed from other sites to determinethe extent to which these equations represent trends inherentto cambial and apical ageing, as distinct from influence ofchanging environment around the trees.     

间伐套种对杉木人工林生长、干形形质和材种结构的影响

目的 分析间伐套种措施对杉木林木生长形质性状、空间利用能力和林分产量的影响,明确林分经营方向,为杉木人工纯林改造提供科学依据。 方法 对安徽省青阳县23 a林龄的杉木人工林设置3种间伐强度（Ⅰ：47%;Ⅱ：56%;Ⅲ：65%）,林下套种2种阔叶树浙江楠（Phoebe chekiangensis）和檫木（Sassafras tzumu）,并以未间伐套种的杉木人工纯林为对照（CK：0%间伐,保留密度1 740株·hm−2）,探究不同间伐与阔叶树套种处理对杉木人工林的影响,并通过主成分分析法综合评价间伐与阔叶树套种对杉木生长的影响。 结果 （1）间伐与阔叶树套种促进了杉木生长,Ⅲ处理的胸径、树高、单木材积、用材出材率均为最大,分别比CK增加了32.07%、21.60%、83.33%、6.77%（P<0.05）;但高径比和胸高形数、小条木、小径材、薪材和废材的出材率均低于CK,分别降低了8.64%、3.70%、90.88%、41.47%、54.50%、5.71%。（2）间伐与阔叶树套种改变了杉木的空间利用能力,冠幅、冠长、冠长率、冠形率、树冠表面积和树冠体积均显著高于CK（P<0.05）,分别提高了12.16%～31.00%、55.58%～61.24%、30.00%～40.00%、16.11%～44.94%、67.17%～95.86%、84.74%～146.63%。（3）间伐套种处理可以有效改善杉木人工林的生长特征,各处理的综合得分由高到低依次为Ⅲ（1.186）>Ⅱ（1.092）>Ⅰ（0.671）>CK（−0.709）。 结论 杉木人工林经营若以快速提升杉木人工林生长特征为目的,本研究中Ⅲ处理（65%间伐 + 套种阔叶树）是最佳处理措施。     

Effect of thinning on the ring characteristics of Japanese cedar plantation trees

The purpose of this study was to explore the ring characteristics of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) tree growth with thinning and unthinning regimes. The trees grown with thinning regimes increased in average ring width (RW), earlywood width, latewood width, ring density (RD), earlywood density, latewood density, maximum ring density, and latewood percentage (LWP) for the entire period of 16 years after thinning, as compared to those grown with unthinning regimes. The RW and RD components showed different reactions lasting several years after thinning. Overall, thinning caused immediate production (first year) of higher RD, lasting for several years; however, wider RW was delayed up to several years after treatment. There was a weak relationship between RW (growth rate) and wood density; and there were significant positive relationships between the RD and LWP. The results suggest that the compression wood produced after thinning.     

ABNORMALLY HEAVY THINNINGS IN YOUNG LARCH

A short assessment of an experiment with European larch (Larixdecidua Miller) in four forests in Scotland. Starting in 1944at a mean height of approximately to feet, the crops were reducedevery alternate year to a stocking of 800, 600, 400, and 200trees per acre, on the lines of South African work. A controlwas thinned to D grade. This preliminary assessment indicatesthat, with the comparatively slow rate of growth in Scotland,the optimum intensity of thinning is that which gives the maximumgrowing space commensurate with the control of competing vegetationand that the arbitary reductions in stocking in this experimentmostly exceeded this optimum. Disease and die-back occurred in three of the experimental areas.The heavy thinnings reduced the number of cankered, dead, anddying trees, but did not cure the trouble on the more resistantremainder. Even under the heaviest thinning grade, a proportionof trees were cankered or died.     

大岗山丘陵区杉木中幼林低密度控制及深抚效果

近年来,国际上由于工资水平的提高和劳动力的缺乏,从而普遍采用低密度控制,即加大造林株行距,加大疏伐强度、减少疏伐次数,以提高林分质量,提前获得收益。杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata Hook)是我国重要用材树种,生产中通常采用多次下层间伐方式。本文对杉木中幼林一次性间伐的合理保留密度即主伐密度以及深抚的有效性进行了研究。一、试验地概况试验是在江西大岗山山下林场陂元Ⅰ区杉木人工林中进行的。地理坐标为114°36’E、27°42’N,地处中亚热带东部罗霄山北端武功山余脉,海拔130-220m,属丘陵山地。土壤为页岩上发育起来的黄红壤,土层厚度为80-150cm,腐殖质层(A+AB)厚度约为25cm。土壤容重为1.2(g/cm~3)左右,pH值为4.4-4.8,有机质含量约为2.5％。气候属中亚热带湿润型,具有四季分明,气候温和,日照充足,雨量充沛的特点:年均降雨量1590.9mm,降雨量集中分布在4-6月,占全年降雨量的45％,年均蒸发量1503.8mm,相对湿度80％,1月平均最低温度-5.3℃,无霜期270天左右。主要林下植被为:杜茎     

Variation in wood properties of Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon (syn. P. khasya Royle; P. insularis Endlicher); Eighteen trees of Burma provenance grown in Zambia

Summary The variation of six wood properties was studied within and between eighteen trees of Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon (syn. P. khasya Royle; P. insularis Endlicher) grown in Zambia from seed of Burma provenance and exhibiting 16 annual rings at 5 ft. above ground. Three trees represented each of two size classes in each of three thinning treatments. Thinning effects were poorly estimated but heavy thinning increased ring width, decreased latewood percentage and caused marginal decreases in tracheid length and density. The two tree classes differed in ring width characteristics. Individual trees varied particularly in density; significant height effects were detected for tracheid length and density. Latewood width (mean 0.9 mm) and grain angle (-1.2°) varied little but total ring width (5.8 mm), latewood percentage (19.6%), tracheid length (4.6 mm) and density (0.46 g/cm³) exhibited systematic patterns of variation within trees; quadratic polynomials including ring number and height as independent variables explained 80 to 90% of the variation. Radial differences were often statistically significant but practically unimportant. For plantation surveys many trees should be sampled by 3–4 annual rings on two radii at breast height.Wood samples were supplied by the Zambian Forest Research Division. Laboratory work was undertaken at the Tree Improvement Research Centre, Agricultural Research Council of Zambia, P. O. Box 1210, Kitwe, Zambia. The author acknowledges the laboratory assistance of Miss P. Waters, Mr. J. Mweetwa, Mr. F. Mulimbwa and Mr. N. Phiri. Data were processed on the IBM 360 computer of the Anglo-American Corporation, Kitwe, and on the KDF 9 computer of the Oxford University Comuting Laboratory; Mr. I. A. andrew, Mr. P. G. Adlard and Mrs. T. Posner assisted at various stages.     

华北落叶松人工林生长对抚育间伐的响应及其与土壤因子的关系

目的 探讨不同间伐强度对林木生长的影响并找出影响林分生长的关键土壤因子。 方法 在山西省沁源县好地方林场华北落叶松人工林设置12块抚育间伐试验样地,开展轻度（间伐强度15%）、中度（间伐强度35%）、重度（间伐强度50%）抚育间伐并设置对照样地,以树木平均胸径、平均树高、平均枝下高、平均冠幅、乔木层生物量与生产力为林木生长指标,利用方差分析与多重比较分析不同间伐强度林分生长特征,结合土壤因子运用相关性分析研究林木生长量与土壤因子的关系。 结果 表明：华北落叶松人工林经中度、重度间伐2年与4年后,各树木生长指标与对照样地相比均显著增加;间伐在减少林分内乔木层生物量的同时能显著提高乔木层生产力,各时间段及间伐强度下乔木层生产力均表现为重度>中度>轻度>对照;间伐可提高土壤有机碳（SOC）、土壤全氮（TN）、土壤全磷（TP）含量,减缓土壤养分的流失;华北落叶松人工林平均胸径生长量与SOC、TN呈显著正相关,平均冠幅生长量与土壤含水率（MC）、SOC、TN、TP显著正相关。 结论 间伐可促进华北落叶松人工林单株林木胸径和冠幅生长,增大林木单株冠径比与生产力,在本研究的3个间伐强度中,50%的重度间伐是最适间伐强度。华北落叶松人工林内土壤有机碳与土壤全氮含量较为丰富,土壤全磷含量较少,土壤pH为弱酸性,SOC、TN、TP是影响华北落叶松人工林生长的重要土壤因子。     

Effect of thinning intensity on tree growth and temporal variation of seed and cone production in a Pinus koraiensis plantation

Thinning of Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis Sieb. et Zucc.) is used to facilitate timber and cone production. The present study in Northeast China investigated the effects of thinning intensity on individual tree growth, temporal variation in cone yield, and seed quality in Korean pine plantation. In 2005, five thinning intensity levels (none, extreme, heavy, moderate and light) were set in 15 permanent plots in a 32-year-old Korean pine plantation at Mengjiagang Forest Farm, Jiamusi City, Heilongjiang Province. We recorded tree growth and seed cone production from 2013 to 2016, i.e., from 8 to 11 years after thinning. Except for height growth, thinning increased tree growth (diameter at breast height and crown size) and improved cone yield. The extreme thinning treatment (to 300 trees per hectare) resulted in the largest tree diameter, tree volume, crown size and 4-year cone production per tree. The highest cone yield per tree in the mast year (2014) was observed when stands were thinned to 500 trees per hectare (heavy thinning). Although the best cone and seed quality and the largest cone and seed mass per tree were recorded in the heavily thinned stand, no significant differences were found between heavy and moderate thinning stands (750 trees per hectare). At the stand level, the moderately thinned stand had the highest basal area, stock volume and seed cone production per stand. Our results suggest that thinning to 750 trees per hectare will improve timber and cone productivity in 40-year-old P. koraiensis stands.     

Compressive strength of young Taiwania (Taiwania cryptomerioides) trees grown with different thinning and pruning treatments

Taiwania (Taiwania cryptomerioides Hay) is an important timber species in Taiwan. Growth in generally improved trees under intense silvicultural practice is so rapid that rotations or the practice of thinning trees may be as short as 20–30 years. Thus, the wood properties of young plantation trees need to be characterized to effectively use this resource. The effects of different thinning and pruning methods on the compressive strength parallel to grain of young Taiwania trees were explored. Average compressive strengths with various thinning treatments revealed the trend of no thinning > medium thinning > heavy thinning and in the pruning treatments showed the trend of medium pruning > no pruning > heavy pruning. However, most results showed no statistically significant differences among thinning and pruning treatments.     

THE EFFECT OF RATE OF GROWTH (RING WIDTH) ON THE DENSITY OF SOFTWOODS

The relation between rate of growth and density has been examinedin fairly wide-ringed Douglas fir (Pseudotsugo taxifolia) andCorsican pine (Pinus nigra var. calabrica) grown in the southof England. A comparison between wood formed early in the lifeof the tree and wood of similar ring width formed later hasshown that the latter is invariably denser, indicating thatthe higher density of older wood is due to an age effect ratherthan to diminishing ring width. It is concluded that after acertain age rapid growth can produce wood of reasonably highdensity. This confirms that Turnbull's findings on widely spacedexotic softwoods grown in South Africa apply, with reservations,to trees grown in this country under conditions where rapidgrowth can be maintained.     

Timber quality after thinning from above and below in stands of Pinus sylvestris

Timber quality and logging damage after different thinning types in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands were studied in a field experiment in north Sweden. Thinning operations were mechanized and carried out according to normal Swedish practise. The treatments were thinning from below and thinning from above. The quality of the residual stand was evaluated using variables such as diameter of the thickest branch, stem taper, annual ring width, straightness and lean of trees. The only variables showing differences between treatments were lean of tree and stem straightness. No difference in the frequency of trees with logging damage was found. The conclusion of this study is that differences between thinning types in first thinning may be evened out when carried out as in commercial forestry due to extraction of strip road and damaged trees. Consequently, differences in timber quality and logging damage in the residual stand may be small.     

Effect of thinning and fertilizer on the cellulose crystallite width of Eucalyptus globulus

An analysis of cellulose crystallite width, microfibril angle and wood density after the time of thinning (at 8 years) in straight vertical trees was undertaken in a 13-year-old E. globulus trial designed to assess the effect of thinning on tension wood formation. The most important effect was on cellulose crystallite width, which increased with thinning intensity and this was mitigated where fertilizer was applied at the time of thinning. Given the relationship between high crystallite width and tension wood occurrence the results demonstrate that heavy thinning of E. globulus at this age can contribute to tension wood formation. However, tension wood production may be significantly reduced where fertilizer is applied. This is possibly because increased diameter growth as a response to fertilizer application stabilises the stems and this is the mechanism by which trees cope with internal stresses that are generated from wind in destabilsed stands following thinning. In contrast, trees that respond poorly to thinning produce tension wood.     

Relationships among selected wood properties of 20-year-old Taiwania (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Taiwania cryptomerioides</Emphasis>) trees

The relationships between bending properties, compressive strength, tracheid length, microfibril angle, and ring characteristics of 20-year-old Taiwania (Taiwania cryptomerioides Hay.) trees were examined. The trees came from different thinning and pruning treatments, but the practices showed no significant effect on the investigated properties. The results showed that based on comparison with the literature, plantation-grown immature Taiwania have noticeably lower average strength properties than mature trees of the same species. Wood density and bending and compressive strengths were not related to either tracheid length or microfibril angle in young Taiwania. There were positive relationships between bending strength and compressive strength. The wood density, ring width, earlywood width, earlywood density, and latewood percentage were the most important predictors of strength by simple linear regressions. The wood density and ring width/earlywood width may be considered as indicators for assessing the bending strength, while wood density and latewood percentage were the best predictors of compressive strength by multiple linear regressions.     

柚木人工林疏伐试验研究

对闽南山地柚木人工林开展不同强度疏伐试验,结果表明,在Ⅲ类立地和初植密度1335株,hm2的条件下,7．5a生左右时即可开始进行疏伐;在疏伐强度10％-40％范围内,随着疏伐强度的加大,林分生长量、土壤肥力、光合作用强度等也趋于提高。根据生产实际,若以年均树高生长量达1．3m、胸径达1．5cm以上为目标,并结合生态效益,则适宜的首次疏伐强度为20％～40％,保留密度为750～1000株/hm2。     

阔叶林采伐迹地省力化更新技术与效益评价

根据山区劳动力不断减少和林业作为生态建设主体的要求，提出了阔叶林采伐迹地的省力化更新方法。试验表明，阔叶林采伐迹地，不炼山、不整地，充分利用林地原有植株的天然更新能力，只经过定向抚育改造，比重新营建人工林可减少人工75～93工／hm^2，节约成本3615～3990元/hm^2，并减轻了营林过程中造成的水土流失。省力化更新幼林林分生长量大，干材产量是重新人工造林的2．60倍；改造后第6年间伐，间伐材作香菇栽培基质用材利用。保留阔叶树种2500～3000株／hm^2培育大径材，12年生年生长量与对照杜英人工林、杉木人工林相当，但林地的生物多样性得到了较好保护。