Post‐release mortality of angled golden perch Macquaria ambigua and Murray cod Maccullochella peelii

Abstract Short‐term (≤4 days) post‐release mortalities of two large, culturally and ecologically important Australian freshwater teleosts golden perch Macquaria ambigua (Richardson) and Murray cod Maccullochella peelii (Mitchell) were investigated. There was no angler‐induced mortality among golden perch that were immediately released in winter and spring, but 24% of this species and 15% of Murray cod died after delayed release in summer. Significant predictors of mortality were limited to times caught and total length for golden perch, and restraint methods and recovery times for Murray cod, but other parameters were also implicated as cumulative influences. The estimated mortalities may be sufficient to produce population‐level impacts for these two long‐lived species but could be considerably reduced through revisions of tournament regulations.     

Entrainment and impingement of juvenile silver perch,Bidyanus bidyanus,and golden perch,Macquaria ambigua,at a fish screen: effect of velocity and light

Entrainment and impingement of two non‐salmonid species susceptible to entrainment at irrigation diversions, silver perch, Bidyanus bidyanus (Mitchell), and golden perch, Macquaria ambigua (Richardson), were examined at an experimental intake screen in a laboratory flume under a range of velocities and light levels. The presence of an intake screen significantly reduced entrainment, in some cases reducing mortality from over 90% (unscreened) to less than 2% (when screened). Although some differences in behaviour existed between species, approach velocities (measured 8 cm in front of the screen) up to 0.4 m s^?1 effectively reduced entrainment, with very little injury or mortality resulting from incidental screen contacts or impingement. Both species used visual cues to negotiate the screen face, thereby increasing their ability to avoid contact at higher velocities. In the absence of these visual cues, positive rheotactic behaviour was enhanced and fish mostly avoided approaching the screen. These results demonstrate that fish screens operated at approach velocities of up to 0.4 m s^?1 have great potential for the protection of silver perch and golden perch juveniles at irrigation intakes.     

Riverine spawning,long distance larval drift,and floodplain recruitment of a pelagophilic fish: A case study of golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) in the arid Darling River,Australia

1. Pelagic spawning riverine fish (pelagophils) spawn in free‐flowing river habitats with downstream drift of eggs and larvae but the spatial scale is often unknown, and this constitutes a major ecological knowledge gap.
2. In the arid Darling River in south‐eastern Australia, the present objectives were: (i) to determine the potential downstream dispersal distance of young golden perch (Macquaria ambigua); and (ii) to evaluate whether provision of environmental water enhanced dispersal of young fish from Menindee Lakes to the lower Darling River (LDR) while also cueing further spawning in downstream lotic reaches.
3. Golden perch spawned in unregulated lotic tributaries on a flood pulse and larvae drifted or dispersed >1,600 km downstream and entered large ephemeral productive floodplain lake nursery habitats as fully scaled fingerlings.
4. Planned releases of environmental water cued golden perch spawning in the LDR and enabled juvenile fish to disperse downstream from the Menindee Lakes nursery into receiving populations in the LDR, Great Darling Anabranch, and southern Murray River, with some fish potentially completing an active migration of >2,100 km by age 1 year.
5. The Darling River case study highlights the need for a system‐scale approach to the conservation management of pelagophilic fish, along with multi‐year perennial flow strategies to improve ecosystem integrity in large rivers globally.

     

Susceptibility of a number of Australian freshwater fishes to dwarf gourami iridovirus (Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus)

Megalocytiviruses cause high mortality diseases that have seriously impacted aquaculture, with the most frequent outbreaks occurring in East and South‐East Asia. The international trade of juvenile fish for food and ornamental aquaculture has aided the spread of these viruses, which have spread to Europe and Australia and other regions. Australian freshwater fishes were examined for susceptibility to infection with the exotic megalocytivirus, dwarf gourami iridovirus (DGIV), which belongs to a group with the type species, Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV). Fish were held at 23 ± 1 °C and challenged by intraperitoneal (IP) injection or by cohabitation with Murray cod, Maccullochella peelii (Mitchell) infected with DGIV. A species was deemed to be susceptible to DGIV based on evidence of viral replication, as determined by qPCR, and megalocytic inclusion bodies observed histologically. Horizontal transmission occurred between infected Murray cod and golden perch, Macquaria ambigua (Richardson), Macquarie perch, Macquaria australasica (Cuvier) and Murray cod. This indicated that DGIV shed from infected fish held at 23 °C can survive in fresh water and subsequently infect these naïve fish. Further, DGIV administered IP was highly pathogenic to golden perch, Macquarie perch and Murray cod. Compared to these species, the susceptibility of southern pygmy perch, Nannoperca australis (Gunther) was lower. Freshwater catfish (dewfish), Tandanus tandanus (Mitchell), were not susceptible under the experimental conditions based on the absence of clinical disease, mortality and virus replication. This study showed the potential risks associated with naïve and DGIV‐infected fish sharing a common water source.     

Factors influencing recruitment patterns of Golden Perch (Macquaria ambigua oriens) within a hydrologically variable and regulated Australian tropical river system

Abstract – The links between river flows, water temperature, river regulation and recruitment variability of Golden Perch, Macquaria ambigua oriens, were investigated from the Fitzroy Basin, Queensland. The dominant age classes determined by interpreting growth marks observed in otoliths were variable among rivers. Positive correlations between the age frequency and monthly river flow volumes were greatest in summer (December–March) conversely, autumn, winter and spring river flows correlated poorly for most rivers. Water temperature exhibits strong seasonality across the basin with mean monthly temperatures >23 °C generally occurring between October and April. These data indicate the combination of water temperature and increased river flows are important factors for recruitment. The degree of river regulation is also suspected of contributing to increased variability in dominant age classes within rivers. This assessment highlights the importance of timing of river flows in mitigating the negative effects of river regulation on golden perch populations.     

Transgenerational marking of brown trout Salmo trutta f.f., using an 84Sr spike

The maternal transmission of a naturally occurring and non‐toxic minor isotope of strontium (⁸⁴Sr) to the central otolith region of the progeny of a typical European freshwater fish species, brown trout, Salmo trutta f.f. L. was accomplished. The focus was to apply minimum doses of a non‐toxic solution at physiological salt concentration to minimise potential adverse effects on the fish. Female spawners were intraperitoneally injected with doses of 12.5 and 30.2 μg ⁸⁴Sr kg^?1 fish. Eggs were stripped and the resulting progeny were reared in a hatchery for about 1 year before sampling the otoliths. Strontium isotope ratios in the otoliths of the offspring were measured by cross‐sectional line scans using laser ablation‐multiple collector‐inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA‐MC‐ICPMS). Otolith cores of marked juveniles showed a significantly elevated ⁸⁴Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio compared with control fish and to otolith regions created after hatching. Mass marking of cohorts of progeny from individually spiked brown trout with Sr isotopes is therefore possible for dispersal and migration studies without the necessity of handling eggs and applying other larval marking methods like immersion.     

Larvae of Australian bass, macquaria novemaculeata (Steindachner 1866), can survive low salinities within 7 days of hatching

Abstract. Laboratory experiments were conducted on larvae or Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata (Steindachner), to establish the age at which they can fully osmoregulate in fresh water. The effect of acclimation at two different salinities (15‰ and 28‰) was also examined. It was found that larvae survived transfer to 2‰ salinity at 7 days post hatch, regardless of acclimation. Acclimation was also found to have little effect on the development of full osmoregulation in fresh water, which occurred between 21 and 28 days after hatching. The data obtained extend previous knowledge on the survival of larval Australian bass in low-salinity water and suggest that early release of suitably acclimated larvae into brackish ponds could reduce the need for intensive hatchery rearing.     

Improvement of the survival in the seven-band grouper Epinephelus septemfasciatus larvae by optimizing aeration and water inlet in the mass-scale rearing tank

The water flow in larval rearing tanks has been indicated to cause mass mortality of the seven-band grouper Epinephelus septemfasciatus larvae. Therefore, a new aerating method was tested in an actual scale intensive rearing tank (8.0 m in diameter, 1.87 m of water depth, 100 m³ of volume), in which an aerator was positioned at the center of the rearing tank surrounding cylindrical drain (1.2 m in diameter) to generate the flow field, and seven larval rearing trials were performed. The survival rate with the former aeration methods were compared, in which several aerators were located in the rearing tank. The survival rate at 10 days after hatching with the new aeration method (61.5±5.1%, n=7) was approximately three times higher than the former methods (21.2±13.7%, n=6). The flow environment of rearing tanks was also examined by quantifying the flow field, and the relationship between the flow field in the rearing tank, behavior of larvae and survival discussed. It was confirmed that the vertical circulating flow was observed in rearing tanks, and determined effectively the survival and the behavior of grouper larvae in patchiness.     

Alizarin marking of whitefish, Coregonus lavaretus otoliths during egg incubation

Alizarin red S from 200 to 5000 mg L^?1 was used to mark the otoliths of whitefish embryos Coregonus lavaretus (L.) from 5 days after fertilization until shortly before hatching, to develop a method for evaluating the effect of stocking whitefish. Mark quality depended on developmental stage at the time of immersion. The best results were obtained when the otolith primordia had formed and had started aggregating to form the innermost part of the nucleus. This was verified by in vitro staining of otoliths where the primordia were more intensely stained than the remaining part of the nucleus. The volume ratio eggs to ARS solution, which was 1:10 in all but two treatments, must be observed when comparing fluorochrome concentrations, as mark quality decreased at higher ratios of 1:5 and 1:2. An average mortality rate of 35% in the most successful treatments was considered tolerable for a mass‐marking programme being used under commercial hatchery conditions. This method for marking otoliths of whitefish embryos with ARS during egg incubation is recommended for all cases where marking of larvae is not possible.     

Dynamics of total lipids and fatty acids during embryogenesis and larval development of Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis)

Total lipid and fatty acid compositions were determined during embryogenesis and larval development in Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis). During embryonic development, perch did not catabolize lipids and fatty acids as an energy source. However, during larval development, there was an exponential relationship between the decrease in total lipids and the duration of starving (r ²=0.9957) and feeding (r ²=1). The duration of the starving period (10 days post hatching) was shorter than the feeding period (35 days post hatching). In both starved and fed larvae, there is an apparent preference in utilization of polyunsaturated fatty acids followed by monounsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids were utilized by neither fed perch larvae nor by starved perch larvae. In starved larvae, palmitoleic 16:1(n-7) and oleic 18:1(n-9) acids were the preferentially monounsaturated fatty acids catabolized and their contribution as energy source from total fatty acids catabolized over the first week was 37.6%. In fed larvae, these 2 nutrients were also the most monounsaturated fatty acids utilized as energy source and possibly also as precursors for others monounsaturated fatty acids biosynthesis. During the same period and among (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids, starved perch utilized less linoleic 18:2(n-6) and arachidonic 20:4(n-6) acids than fed larvae despite the fact that the starved perch were in more unfavorable nutritional conditions. In the case of (n-3) fatty acids, starved larvae utilized more linolenic acid 18:3(n-3) and less eicosapentaenoic 20:5(n-3) acid and docosahexaenoic 22:6(n-3) acid than fed perch. Starved larvae probably spared 20:5(n-3) and 22:6(n-3) for physiological functions.     

The incorporation of environmentally derived 87Sr/86Sr and Sr/Ca in early otolith formation of Chinook salmon

Effective species management often requires understanding patterns of movement and habitat use. A common approach in identifying where individuals reside relies upon chemical tracers from the environment that are incorporated into an individual's tissues. For fish, isotopes in their otoliths, specifically the portion of their otolith formed during their larval stage, have been used to identify the natal origin. Complicating this work, however, is the fact that during this life stage, there is a shift in the source of isotopes deposited onto the growing otolith from maternally to environmentally derived. The objective of this study was to identify the portion of the otolith representing this transition to environmentally derived isotopes so as to accurately investigate questions of natal origin for a threatened population of fall Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). We exposed developing larvae to four treatments that differed in terms of their water strontium isotope ratio (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) and used change-point analysis of otolith ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and strontium to calcium ratio (Sr/Ca) to identify the otolith radius corresponding to the transition to environmentally derived isotopes. Our results indicated this transition occurred, on average, at 132 μm (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr; ±50 μm standard deviation) and 127 μm (Sr/Ca; ±29 μm) from the otolith core, which corresponded to the developmental time between hatching and exogenous feeding. A substantial proportion of our otoliths (i.e., 61%) did not show convergence between otolith and water ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr by the end of the 113-day experiment, which was likely due to the dietary contribution of marine-based feed. Therefore, we were unable to recommend an otolith radius to target for the purposes of reconstructing natal origin apart from being beyond approximately 130 μm.     

Intra-cohort cannibalism among larval stages of perch (Perca fluviatilis)

Cohorts of perch larvae, hatched within 24 h, developed into a bimodal body size distribution as early as 6 days after commencement of external food uptake. At this development stage, intra-cohort cannibalism occurred among larval perch individuals of larval stage V (body size: 10.5±0.26 mm, 95% c. l.) on smaller siblings. In experimental trials the consumption rate (C: no. of prey/predator·hour) increased exponentially with size of predatory perch (L: mm) and at 21°C was expressed by the relationship log C=3.406·log L-3.848 (n=10, r²=0.98, P<0.001). For predatory perch in larval stage V, consumption rate was reduced when Daphnia pulex were added, while not in later stages. Perch larvae experimentally forced to live as true piscivores without additional food items developed from stage V to stage IX (15.8±1.34 mm) within the same time as those fed on Daphnia alone, but with increased mortality.     

Bacterial nutrition of great scallop larvae

Bacterial nutrition of great scallop, Pecten moximus, larvae was investigated using the radioactive tracer technique. The bacterial labelling was studied initially to obtain a high and stable specific radioactivity (¹⁴C) of bacterial cells. A higher bacterial specific ¹⁴C activity was obtained when the tracer (amino acid) was introduced in the culture medium at the beginning of the exponential growth phase. After a 12 h labelling period in a rich nutritive medium, the bacteria were depurated in seawater for 5 h (chase) to prevent further ¹⁴C excretion and then added to larval rearing vessels. The larval labelling was followed for 12 h and then larvae were placed in new vessels without radioactive bacteria. The depuration of larvae was followed for 3 days. Data obtained on ingestion and assimilation efficiency show that bivalve larvae are able to ingest and digest bacteria.     

Dietary supplementation of mannan oligosaccharide on white sea bream (Diplodus sargus L.) larvae: effects on development,gut morphology and salinity tolerance

The influence of dietary mannan oligosaccharide (MOS) on the development, gut integrity and quality (in respect of stamina and survivability) of white sea bream Diplodus sargus L. larvae was investigated. White sea bream larvae were held under appropriate rearing conditions and fed Artemia, enriched by A1 DHA Selco^? with the addition or absence of MOS (Bio‐Mos®). The results indicated that larval growth performance and survivability were not affected by the MOS supplementation. Light microscopy revealed that MOS supplementation significantly improved the intestinal morphology by increasing the villi surface area by over 12%. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that MOS supplementation increased the microvilli length by 26% compared with the control. Salinity challenge experiments showed that MOS significantly increased larval stamina and survival in both 0 and 60 mg L^?1 salinity water by 13% and 22.9% respectively. These improvements in the larval quality at the early stages of fish development are important for the efficiency of intensive hatchery production.     

Larval rearing of African carp,Labeo parvus Boulenger, 1902 (Pisces: Cyprinidae), using live food and artificial diet under controlled conditions

This study aimed at (1) evaluating the efficacy of live food organisms (Artemia and natural zooplankton) and an artificial diet in the larval rearing of African carp Labeo parvus and (2) determining appropriate rearing conditions. After yolk sac resorption, the larvae were separated into five different feeding trials with two replicates. At the end of the larval rearing period (28 days post‐hatching), the highest (94.6%) and the lowest (53.7%) cumulative survival rates were found when larvae were fed with natural zooplankton for 7 days followed by Nippai food for 21 days, and when larvae were fed from the beginning of exogenous feeding with Nippai food only respectively. The significant highest body weight (351.6 mg), total length (34.4 mm) and specific growth rates (15.5%day^?1) were recorded when the larvae were fed with Artemia nauplii for 14 days followed by Nippai food for 14 days. The lowest growth performance (body weight and specific growth rates) were obtained when larvae were fed exclusively Nippai food. These results indicate that L. parvus can be successfully cultured in indoor nursery systems from hatching to the early juvenile stage.     

Efficacy of calcein as a chemical marker of green‐lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) larvae and its potential use for tracking larval dispersal

An optimal chemical shell marking protocol was developed for the New Zealand green‐lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus with a view to its future use in larval tracking experiments. Larval P. canaliculus aged either 10, 15 or 19 days post fertilization were immersed in treatments of 50, 100 and 200 mg L^?1 of calcein for a period of 24 h before measurements of shell mark brightness were taken. There was 100% marking success in all calcein treatments for all age classes, with 19‐day larvae immersed in 200 mg L^?1 calcein producing the brightest mark. Growth was not affected by calcein immersion; however, 10‐day larvae exhibited significantly higher levels of mortality compared with 15‐ and 19‐day larvae suggesting a reduced resilience to the marking protocols in younger larvae. In a mass staining experiment, a solution of 100 mg L^?1 calcein was used to successfully stain15.6 million hatchery reared P. canaliculus larvae. Calcein, therefore, offers a low impact method with which to stain the sensitive early life stages of this species thus providing a rapid method for identifying individuals of interest, i.e. individuals released in the wild or specific family lines within a hatchery environment.     

Larval rearing of hilsa shad,Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton 1822)

Hilsa, Tenualosa ilisha has received much attention for culture due to decline of the natural population. Lack of knowledge on larval rearing is the bottleneck for its culture. This study was aimed at developing larval rearing protocols for hilsa shad. Hilsa larvae (4 days old, 4.76 ± 0.06 mm/0.49 ± 0.01 mg) were stocked in fibreglass‐reinforced plastic tanks (1.7 m³ water volume) at 300, 600 and 1,200 nos/m³ in triplicates in three experimental systems viz., E‐I (circular, 0.567 m water depth), E‐II (circular, 0.962 m water depth) and E‐III (rectangular, 0.567 m water depth) and reared for 46 days. The larvae were supplied with Chlorella vulgaris, Brachionus calyciflorus, mixed phytoplankton and mixed zooplankton during 4–50, 6–25, 8–50 and 26–50 days of their age respectively. In each system, higher (p < 0.05) fry survival at 300 nos/m³ than in higher densities indicates density dependent stress. Circular tanks showed higher survival (13.3%–61.31%) than in rectangular tanks (6.88%–27.26%) in each stocking density, indicating the importance of tank shape for rearing. Water depth affected fry survival in circular tanks (E‐I and E‐II) at 300 nos/m³; at 0.962 m depth, survival was higher (61.31%, p < 0.05) than that of 0.567 m depth (49.93%). Good fry survival was achieved through feeding the larvae initially with Chlorella followed by co‐feeding with Brachionus, mixed phytoplankton and zooplankton and rearing in circular tanks at 300 nos/m³ densities at 1 m depth. This first‐ever larval rearing protocol is useful for mass production of fry to support hilsa aquaculture in future.     

Diel and ontogenetic body density change in Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis (Temminck and Schlegel), larvae

Diel and ontogenetic changes in larval body density related to swim bladder volume were investigated in Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis, to determine the causality of larval mortality – adhesion to the water surface and contact with the tank bottom during seedling production. The density of larvae with deflated swim bladders increased with total length and days post hatch. Diel density change was observed after day 2 post hatch; owing to daytime deflation and night‐time inflation of the swim bladder, the density was relatively higher during the daytime. Increased swim bladder volumes clearly reduced larval density during the night‐time after day 9 post hatch. However, the density of larvae with inflated swim bladders was greater than rearing water density (Δρ>0.0099). The small density difference between larvae and rearing water (Δρ=0.0022?0.0100) until day 4 post hatch may have caused larval mortality by adhesion to the water surface because larvae can be easily transported to the water surface by aeration‐driven upwelling in rearing tanks. Density increased noticeably from day 5 to day 9 post hatch. The increased density difference (Δρ=0.0065?0.0209) in larvae and rearing water possibly induced mortality by contact with the tank bottom because larvae sink particularly during the night‐time on ceasing swimming.     

Changes in proximate and amino acid composition during early development of two Australian Percichthyid fish, Macquarie perch, Macquaria australasica Cuvier, and trout cod, Maccullochella macquarensis (Cuvier)

In the present paper, the results of a study on changes in the proximate and amino acid composition of the eggs and larvae of two Australian native Percichthyid fish, Macquarie perch, Macquaria australasica Cuvier, and trout cod, Maccullochella macquarensis (Cuvier), are presented. The stages of development studied were unfertilized and fertilized eggs, newly hatched larvae, and post-yolk-sac larvae (in Macquarie perch only). In Macquarie perch, significant changes in moisture content occurred throughout development, but this was not so in trout cod. The protein content (per cent dry weight) in Macquarie perch larvae only decreased significantly after hatching (P < 0.05). On the other hand, the total lipid (by dry weight) increased significantly during this transformation (P < 0.05), and decreased significantly in yolk-sac-resorbed larvae. In trout cod, the protein and lipid content did not change significantly up to hatching. The ash content increased significantly in newly hatched and yolk-sac-resorbed larvae of both species. The total amino acid contents of unfertilized eggs, fertilized eggs, newly hatched larvae and yolk-sac-resorbed larvae of Macquarie perch and trout cod were 5752, 4652, 3696 and 2723 μmol g^?1 (dry weight), and 4688. 3448 and 2329 μmol g^?1, respectively. In the amino acid pool in Macquarie perch, the essential amino acids (EAAs) leucine, isoleucine and valine, and the non-essential amino acids (NEAAs) alanine, aspargine and glutamate occurred in the greatest quantities in non-fertilized eggs, and the cysteine content was the smallest. In Macquarie perch, five out of nine EAAs (i.e. isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine and valine) and six out of eight NEAAs (i.e. alanine, asparagine, glutamate, glycine, proline and serine) decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from one developmental stage to the other. In trout cod, all the EAAs, barring lysine and all the NEAAs decreased significantly with development.     

Efficiency of stagnant water larviculture using disinfected amictic eggs of the rotifer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brachionus plicatilis</Emphasis> in Japanese flounder <Emphasis Type="Italic">Paralichthys olivaceus</Emphasis>

There is a need to develop low-cost methods for larviculture that emphasize disease prevention. We evaluated stagnant water larviculture in flounder Paralichthys olivaceus using rotifer amictic eggs treated with glutaraldehyde. Growth and survival of the larvae were similar to in larvae reared by standard running water larviculture with daily feeding of rotifers (control). In the experimental group, the n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acid content of rotifers in the rearing water was higher than in the enriched rotifers fed to the control group. We also observed a similar pattern for the fatty acid composition of flounder larvae. The viable bacterial counts associated with rotifers in stagnant water were lower than those associated with enriched rotifers, and there were fewer bacterial genera. However, the viable bacterial count was the same or higher in the experimental rearing water compared with that in the control group. The α-Proteobacteria and Cytophaga–Flavobacterium–Bacteroidetes group dominated the bacterial community structure after larval hatching. To our knowledge, this is the first time that stagnant water larviculture, using only disinfected amictic eggs, has been successfully demonstrated on a mass production scale. This method appears to offer benefits including improved nutrition, more favorable bacterial communities, and lower cost.