Effect of restraint upon hypothalamic and adrenal catecholamines in Japanese quail

1. Changes in catecholamine concentration after periods of restraint up to 48 h in male Japanese quail have been measured. 2. Hypothalamic catecholamines decreased after 10 min restraint. Dopamine concentration increased after 4 h and persisted to 48 h. 3. Plasma catecholamines increased after 10 min, remained high for 2 h and then decreased despite continuing restraint. Catecholamine content of adrenals slightly decreased during restraint. 4. The activity of adrenal phenylethanolamine-N-methyl transferase increased from the 4th hour of restraint.     

Chemical restraint in ruminants.

Physical restraint is generally required when working with food animal patients. Adding a degree of chemical restraint can make many procedures more pleasant for both practitioner and patient. The enhanced level of patient cooperation improves efficiency, offsetting the modest additional cost of the drugs used. Chemical restraint techniques used in ruminants range from mild sedation of standing patients to semianesthetized recumbency.     

Restraint and anaesthesia of primates

The methods available for the restraint and anaesthesia of captive primates are discussed, emphasising the differences between the techniques for primates and those for other mammals; the importance of humane methods of physical restraint is emphasised. The agents available for chemical restraint and surgical anaesthesia are considered in terms of their ease of administration, the dose rate required, speed of induction and recovery, analgesic properties, muscle relaxation and side effects. New agents are available which are potentially useful in primates.     

Comparison of cortisol, luteinizing hormone, and testosterone responses to a defined stressor in sexually inactive rams and sexually active female-oriented and male-oriented rams

The objective of this study was to determine whether the effect of restraint stress on cortisol, LH, and testosterone varied among sexually inactive and sexually active female- and male-oriented rams, to allow differentiation among ram classes. Restraint stress or no stress was imposed on sexually inactive (n = 7) and sexually active female- (n = 17) and male-oriented (n = 6) rams in a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement. Rams were assigned to restraint or control within each classification. Rams were habituated to wearing halters and being tethered in separate pens, permitting visual, vocal, and olfactory contact with adjacent rams for 7 d before treatment. After 1 d of habituation, rams were fitted with jugular catheters that were checked twice daily for patency. For restraint stress, rams were laid on their side with their legs tied for 1 h. For no stress, rams were tethered with halters and leads, but their legs were not tied. On the treatment day, blood was collected at 30-min intervals for 3 h followed by 15-min intervals for 1 h before restraint, during 1-h restraint, and for 1 h after liberation from restraint. Then blood was collected at 30-min intervals for an additional 2 h. Blood was collected from controls at similar intervals. Control rams were isolated from stressed rams. Cortisol, LH, and testosterone were measured using RIA. Mixed model analyses with repeated measures were used on transformed data. Average prestress data were used as a covariate. Cortisol increased (P < 0.01) within 15 min after restraint and remained increased until 1.5 h after liberation from 1-h of restraint stress. In contrast, in controls cortisol remained unchanged at 5 ng/ mL. Cortisol did not differ over time among ram classes, and the treatment x ram class x time interaction was not significant. For LH and testosterone, the ram class x time interactions appeared to compromise the ability to identify differences in these hormones, indicating that they were not good endocrine candidates for methods of classifying rams. In conclusion, restraint stress increased cortisol in sexually inactive and sexually active female- and male-oriented rams alike, thus not providing a method to differentiate among ram classes.     

Responsiveness of beef cattle (Bos taurus) to human approach,novelty, social isolation,restraint and trade‐offs between feeding and social companionship

This study investigated responsiveness of beef cattle to various environmental stimuli by subjecting 15–16 Japanese Black cows to five tests repeated twice. Within individual behavioral measures, cows were moderately (repeatability = 0.54–0.70) or highly (repeatability = 0.74–0.89) consistent in flight distance during grazing and resting in the human approach tests, maximum distance from the group pen and the number of total and different feed tub visits in the feeding–sociability trade‐off test, and unwillingness to enter the restraint, movement under restraint and flight speed after release from restraint in the social isolation and restraint test. By contrast, cows were not consistent in the latency to make the first contact and the number of contacts with novel object(s) in the novelty test (repeatability = 0.24–0.39). Across behavioral measures in different tests, cows showed no consistency (P ≥ 0.05) in any combinations of measures from the two human approach tests, the trade‐off test and the social isolation and restraint test. In conclusion, human approach (particularly during resting), feeding–sociability trade‐off and social isolation and restraint situations can be used for evaluating personality in Japanese Black cows, while the value of the novelty test needs to be reexamined.     

Effect of restraint inside the transport vehicle on heart rate and heart rate variability in Thoroughbred horses

This study aimed to investigate the effect of transportation and restraint in a van on heart rate (HR) and HR variability in Thoroughbreds. Eight healthy Thoroughbreds were exposed to four conditions, each for a duration of 30 min: stall rest (REST), restraint inside a van (VAN), restraint inside a van with the engine running (V + E), and road transportation (TRANS). Electrocardiograms were recorded to determine HR, low-frequency (LF) power, high-frequency (HF) power, and LF/HF ratio. During TRANS, HR was significantly greater than during REST and V + E. There was a significant increase during VAN compared with REST. These results demonstrated that restraint inside the transport vehicle was one of the major stressors that may cause physiological changes during transportation.     

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY OF BALL PYTHONS (Python regius) IN CURLED RECUMBENCY

Anesthesia and tube restraint methods are often required for computed tomography (CT) of snakes due to their natural tendency to curl up. However, these restraint methods may cause animal stress. The aim of this study was to determine whether the CT appearance of the lungs differs for ball pythons in a curled position vs. tube restraint. Whole body CT was performed on ten clinically healthy ball pythons, first in curled and then in straight positions restrained in a tube. Curved multiplanar reformatted (MPR) lung images from curled position scans were compared with standard MPR lung images from straight position scans. Lung attenuation and thickness were measured at three locations for each scan. Time for positioning and scanning was 12 ± 5 min shorter for curled snakes compared to tube restraint. Lung parenchyma thickness and attenuation declined from cranial to caudal on both straight and curled position images. Mean lung parenchyma thickness was greater in curled images at locations 1 (P = 0.048) and 3 (P = 0.044). Mean lung parenchyma thickness decreased between location 1 and 2 by 86–87% (straight: curled) and between location 1 and 3 by 51‐50% (straight: curled). Mean lung attenuation at location 1 was significantly greater on curled position images than tube restraint images (P = 0.043). Findings indicated that CT evaluation of the lungs is feasible for ball pythons positioned in curled recumbency if curved MPR is available. However, lung parenchyma thickness and attenuation in some locations may vary from those acquired using tube restraint.     

Chemical restraint and analgesia in the horse

Chemical restraint in the standing horse is used for a variety of procedures in veterinary medicine. The choice of agent depends on the physical status, temperament, and size of the patient; the procedure to be performed; and safety for the patient, veterinarian, and owner. The combination of certain agents may provide more desirable restraint and analgesia than does the use of individual agents. The use of analgesics in the horse is not without side effects, some of which may be detrimental to the patient's condition. Analgesics should be chosen with these untoward effects in mind. Draft breeds possess differences that may provide a challenge to the practitioner. One such difference is their clinically apparent increased sensitivity to tranquilizers and sedative-hypnotics; consequently, reduced dose regimens for chemical restraint should be employed initially.     

Effect of calf thymus extract and zinc supplementation on the cellular response of mice exposed to restraint stress

The studies were carried out on Balb/c mice exposed to restraint stress twice for 12 h at 24 h intervals. Prior to stress exposure, the mice were treated with calf thymus extract (TFX - Jelfa) i.p. at a dose of 10 mg/kg, ten times at 24 h intervals. TFX was used per se or with zinc ions interaction, by adding zinc ions (as sulfate salt) to drinking water at a dose of 72 microg/mouse per day. The results obtained show that restraint stress dramatically decreased the total number of thymocytes and splenocytes which is also accompanied by decreasing weight ratio of the thymus and spleen. The decreasing number of thymic and spleen cells corresponded to a diminishing percentage of immature, double-positive CD4+CD8+ thymocytes, mature single-positive CD4+ thymic cells and CD4+, CD8+ and CD19+ splenocytes. Changes in the number of thymic cells affect their activity, which is expressed as a decreased proliferative response of thymocytes stimulated in vitro with concanavalin A (Con A) and phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Besides, exposure to the restraint stress decreased interleukin-1 (IL-1) production by murine intraperitoneal macrophages stimulated in vitro with lipopolisacharide (LPS) from E. coli. Previous treatment with TFX counteracted restraint stress-induced immunosuppression, which is expressed as partial normalisation of the total number of thymic and spleen cells, accelerated regeneration of these two lymphatic organs, shortned suppressive action of restraint stress on the percentage of immature CD4+CD8+ thymocytes and CD4+ splenocytes and in total normalisation of the CD4+ thymocytes and CD8+ splenocytes. TFX administered prior to restraint stress not only counteracted the suppresive effects of stress on the proliferative activity of thymic cells stimulated in vitro with Con A and PHA, but also augmented the proliferative response of these cells to two mitogens. The immunorestorative effect of TFX was augmented by zinc supplementation.     

Physical restraint techniques and immobilization equipment.

The art of safe and effective restraint of non-domestic patients can aid in their management and facilitate their health care delivery. This article discusses some of the strategies and basic equipment required in handling these unique patients more commonly seen by veterinary practitioners. These restraint procedures may offer an alternative to anesthesia for minor, less stressful procedures that do not involve pain.     

Behavioral response and cost comparison of manual versus pharmacologic restraint protocols in healthy dogs

Although sedatives are routinely administered to dogs for diagnostic and minimally invasive procedures, manual restraint is often used. The study compared intra-procedural behavioral response, scored on a 100-point, visual analog scale, and cost of restraint in healthy dogs given 1 of 5 treatments: manual restraint, dexmedetomidine at 125 μg/m² (Dex 125) or 375 μg/m² (Dex 375), Dex 125 plus butorphanol at 0.4 mg/kg (Dex 125 + Bu), or Dex 375 plus butorphanol at 0.4 mg/kg (Dex 375 + Bu). Mean behavioral response scores in dogs declined from baseline in the manual restraint group and improved in a linear fashion in the group order Dex 125, Dex 375, Dex 125 + Bu, and Dex 375 + Bu. Dexmedetomidine at 375 μg/m² or at 125 μg/m² or at 375 μg/m² in combination with butorphanol produced the best intra-procedural behavioral response. The cost of sedative drugs was offset by the opportunity cost of diverting personnel from revenue-generating activity to manual restraint.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the distal limb of cattle.

Ultrasonography has proven its worth in both small animal and equine musculoskeletal work. It allows visualization of soft tissue that is not possible with anything barring magnetic resonance imaging. In bovine practice, ultrasound has been used to great effect in reproductive work and has also shown itself to be of value in the evaluation of the thorax, abdomen, and the udder. Ultrasound examination of the bovine limb is certainly feasible because of the availability of small portable and affordable equipment. The restraint necessary is dependent on the animal. Cattle, because of their size and inherent dislike of restraint, pose a challenge for ultrasonographic examination. However, if proper restraint is used, it seems possible that ultrasonography may become a helpful tool in the evaluation of soft tissue injuries. It should prove to provide valuable information that may be used to offer better advice with regard to treatment and prognosis.     

Effect of stress on myocardial cells and blood levels of catecholamines in normal and amygdalectomized pigs.

The effects of restraint stress on heart activity, blood catecholamines and the development of myocardial necrosis were studied in five unoperated and five unsuccessfully amygdalectomized (sham-operated) pigs and compared with six bilaterally amygdalectomized pigs. In the sham-operated and the nonoperated animals, restraint stress often provoked intense tachycardia, as well as considerable elevations of blood catecholamines, particularly noradrenaline, associated with more or less widespread foci of myocardial necrosis. In contrast, the same restraint produced only minor heart rate increase in the six completely amygdalectomized animals; their blood noradrenaline levels were significantly lower and no myocardial necrosis could be detected, either macro- or microscopically. The results indicate that the amygdaloid part of the limbic system and the sympathoadrenal system are of importance in the induction of myocardial necrosis often noted in pigs when exposed to situations of severe mental stress.     

中型非人灵长类动物压缩保定治疗笼的设计制作与应用

物理保定是野生动物饲养管理的重要工作内容之一,在疾病诊治过程中起了重要作用。为了解决中型非人灵长类动物在临床检查和治疗等操作时的物理保定问题,本研究根据中型非人灵长类动物的生物学特点和兽医临床需要,研制了一种压缩保定治疗笼。该笼具为长方体结构,通过滑轮、推拉杆等装置控制后侧面移动,以改变笼体空间大小,实现压缩功能;并配有操作窗口、可拆卸喂食(水)盘、折叠式输液架等结构。临床应用结果表明,该笼具对长臂猿、金丝猴、猕猴等多种中型非人灵长类动物都能实现压缩保定,对提高临床检查效率和治疗效果起到了积极作用。     

Feasibility of computed tomography in awake dogs with traumatic pelvic fracture

In veterinary medicine, general anesthesia or sedation is generally required to immobilize patients during computed tomography (CT) scanning. This may not be suitable in all patients because of risks of anesthesia. We evaluated the feasibility of pelvic CT examination in 14 awake animals with pelvic trauma. Physical restraint was applied by wrapping the patient in a towel and then taping to the CT table or by directly taping the patient to the CT table. The effect of patient positioning, cooperation on the CT table, preparation time for scanning, scanning time, frequency of repeat scans, image quality, and complications related to physical restraint were evaluated. Fractures were recorded and compared between radiography and CT. Ten of 14 dogs were scanned in lateral recumbency and four in sternal recumbency. All patients were cooperative with the exception of one that moved slightly during the scan. Both physical restraint methods were adequate for CT scanning. Patient preparation took less than 5 min while the scan time was typically less than 1 min. No repeat scans were required in any patient. The transverse CT image quality was good (10/14) or fair (4/14) for interpretation. When comparing the CT images to radiographs, more pelvic fractures were identified with CT than with radiography and a few patients were overdiagnosed based on radiographs. No complications or additional injuries associated with physical restraint were noticed.     

Changes in brain monoamine metabolism of neonatal chicks under two different acute stress conditions

1. The purpose of the present study was to clarify brain monoamine metabolism during two different conditions of acute stress by quantifying changes in the brain of neonatal chicks exposed to either restraint with isolation, or fasting stress. 2. Under restraint with isolation-induced stress, dopaminergic metabolism was clearly stimulated. 3. During fasting stress, dopaminergic activity, serotonergic and norepinephrinergic metabolisms were stimulated. 4. It was concluded that brain monoamine metabolism of chicks is differentially affected by stressors.     

Effects of social isolation and restraint on adrenocortical responses and hypoalgesia in loose-housed dairy cows

Effects of social isolation or restraint, applied outside the home pen, on adrenocortical and nociceptive responses were examined in 28 loose-housed dairy cows. Treatments lasted 15 min and consisted of social isolation in novel surroundings or restraint by the head in a test pen. A control treatment was applied in the test pen as well. Each cow was exposed to all treatments in a balanced order, with 3 to 4 d between treatments. Compared with the control treatment, social isolation in novel surroundings led to increased plasma concentration of cortisol (P < 0.001) as well as to indications of hypoalgesia [posttreatment lack of decrease in latency to respond toward nociceptive laser stimulation, a tendency for decreased frequency of kicking in the pauses between laser stimulations (P = 0.06), and an increased proportion of leg moving (least possible active response) after treatment (P = 0.04)]. Indications of hypoalgesia were also observed after restraint (reduced kicking in response to laser stimulation, P = 0.04); however, the indications were to a lesser extent than after social isolation, and restraint treatment did not lead to increased plasma concentration of cortisol. For control and restraint treatment, an initial increase (P < 0.02) in plasma concentration of cortisol was found, suggesting effects of pretreatment factors such as handling. No correlations between adrenocortical and nociceptive responses toward social isolation were found. The results confirm earlier reports stating that nociceptive changes induced by environmental challenges can be shown in dairy cows, even when they are kept in groups and removed from the home pen during the study of stress responses. However, testing outside the home pen seemed to affect the nociceptive and adrenocortical responses, thereby suggesting that care should be taken to avoid effects of pretreatment situational factors.     

Electro-immobilization versus mechanical restraint in an avoid-avoid choice test for ewes

A Y-maze avoid-avoid choice test was used to elucidate pregnant ewes' relative preference for electro-immobilization as opposed to restraint by a squeeze-tilt table. Choices in successive trials evaluating three commercial electro-immobilizers were: electro-immobilizer-13, 13 and 8% for respective models; squeeze-tilt table-79, 57 and 71%; and no choice-8, 30 and 21%. In all trials combined, 56% of the ewes never chose the electro-immobilizer after once experiencing it, while 94% did choose the squeeze-tilt table one or more times after being restrained by it. Most ewes became more willing to enter the table as experience with it increased, but those that had been both electro-immobilized and table-restrained became more hesitant to pass the test facility's entrance gate as these experiences increased. Ewes accepted a feed reward only reluctantly if at all after being electro-immobilized, but readily after table restraint. Electro-immobilization was clearly more aversive to the ewes than was restraint by a squeeze/tilt table. When restraint by either electro-immobilization or squeeze/tilt table is necessary, use of the table would be indicated in terms of its being less aversive.     

Stress exposure during the preimplantation period affects blastocyst lineages and offspring development

We found retardation of preimplantation embryo growth after exposure to maternal restraint stress during the preimplantation period in our previous study. In the present study, we evaluated the impact of preimplantation maternal restraint stress on the distribution of inner cell mass (ICM) and trophectoderm (TE) cells in mouse blastocysts, and its possible effect on physiological development of offspring. We exposed spontaneously ovulating female mice to restraint stress for 30 min three times a day during the preimplantation period, and this treatment caused a significant increase in blood serum corticosterone concentration. Microscopic evaluation of embryos showed that restraint stress significantly decreased cell counts per blastocyst. Comparing the effect of restraint stress on the two blastocyst cell lineages, we found that the reduction in TE cells was more substantial than the reduction in ICM cells, which resulted in an increased ICM/TE ratio in blastocysts isolated from stressed dams compared with controls. Restraint stress reduced the number of implantation sites in uteri, significantly delayed eye opening in delivered mice, and altered their behavior in terms of two parameters (scratching on the base of an open field test apparatus, time spent in central zone) as well. Moreover, prenatally stressed offspring had significantly lower body weights and in 5-week old females delivered from stressed dams, fat deposits were significantly lower. Our results indicate that exposure to stress during very early pregnancy can have a negative impact on embryonic development with consequences reaching into postnatal life.     

A combination chemical/physical method for repeated restraint of turkeys

A method for the repeated long-term restraint of young turkey toms was developed. Fifteen mg xylazine/kg body weight was administered intramuscularly (IM) to each of 60 toms whose heads and bodies were then covered with surgical stockinette secured with adhesive tape during a total of 229 restraint events (RE). Toms then were restrained in dorsal recumbency for 2, 4, or 6 hr daily for 4 days. Those restrained for 6 hr received an additional IM injection of 10 mg xylazine/kg body weight after 3 hr of restraints. Three toms with airsacculitis or pneumonia died during restraint, and one with pneumonia died during the night between RE. The mean body temperature of restrained toms declined during the first 150 min of RE and then stabilized. Toms restrained 6 hr daily lost weight during the 4 treatment days. Toms restrained 2 hr and 4 hr gained weight, but the latter group did not gain weight as quickly as the former.