Zoonoses as a risk when associating with livestock or animal products

The risk of zoonotic disease transmission when handling livestock or animal products is substantial. In industrialized countries, the classical zoonotic diseases such as tuberculosis or brucellosis are no longer in the foreground. Latent zoonoses such as salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis can cause serious disease in humans and have become a major public health problem during the past years. Since animals infected with these pathogens show only mild transient disease or no clinical signs at all, new concepts in the entire production line ("stable to table") are necessary in order to avoid human infection. Two emerging viruses with zoonotic potential--avian influenza virus and Nipah virus--have been found in Asia in 1997 and 1999. Both diseases had a major impact on disease control and public health in the countries of origin. In order to cope threats from infectious diseases, in particular those of public health relevance, a combined effort among all institutions involved will be necessary. The proposed "European Center for Infectious Diseases" and the "Swiss center for zoonotic diseases" could be a potential approach in order to achieve this goal.     

Zoonotic diseases of birds.

Numerous diseases are shared by birds and humans. Many of them are true zoonosis. Chlamydiosis, salmonellosis, and tuberculosis are the primary infectious diseases. Allergic alveolitis in humans, induced by exposure to bird dander and protein, is also of great significance. The other diseases are of less common occurrence or represent oddities. [Editor's note: However, the increased incidence of AIDS and the increased use of immune system-compromising medications in humans have resulted in a drastic increase in the zoonotic diseases. Formerly rare diseases are becoming more common.]     

Brucellosis in the European Union and Norway at the turn of the twenty-first century

Control and eradication programs of brucellosis in cattle, sheep, goats and pigs have been more or less successfully implemented within the Member States (MS) of the European Union (EU) and Norway after Word War II. As a result, the epidemiological situation of animal brucellosis is extremely diverse among different MS or regions within a MS and among the different animal species. Some MS, mainly North European countries, and Norway are declared “officially bovine brucellosis free” and/or “officially ovine and caprine (Brucella melitensis) free”. The situation is less favorable in Southern European countries, particularly as far as sheep and goat brucellosis are concerned. This situation has important zoonotic consequences as reflected in the number of human brucellosis cases due to B. melitensis that are still encountered in those countries. Brucellosis in swine has re-emerged as a result of spillover from the wild boar brucellosis (Brucella suis biovar 2) reservoir, particularly in outdoor reared pigs. Besides the actual challenge to eradicate brucellosis, further issues have to be addressed: (1) the management of false positive serological results that occur in the course of brucellosis testing, particularly in cattle; (2) the impact of wildlife brucellosis, particularly wild boar brucellosis in domestic animals; and (3) the importance of B. melitensis infection in cattle that are in contact with infected sheep.     

A review of zoonotic disease surveillance supported by the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center

The Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center (AFHSC), Division of Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System conducts disease surveillance through a global network of US Department of Defense research laboratories and partnerships with foreign ministries of agriculture, health and livestock development in over 90 countries worldwide. In 2010, AFHSC supported zoonosis survey efforts were organized into four main categories: (i) development of field assays for animal disease surveillance during deployments and in resource limited environments, (ii) determining zoonotic disease prevalence in high-contact species which may serve as important reservoirs of diseases and sources of transmission, (iii) surveillance in high-risk human populations which are more likely to become exposed and subsequently infected with zoonotic pathogens and (iv) surveillance at the human-animal interface examining zoonotic disease prevalence and transmission within and between human and animal populations. These efforts have aided in the detection, identification and quantification of the burden of zoonotic diseases such as anthrax, brucellosis, Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever, dengue fever, Hantaan virus, influenza, Lassa fever, leptospirosis, melioidosis, Q fever, Rift Valley fever, sandfly fever Sicilian virus, sandfly fever Naples virus, tuberculosis and West Nile virus, which are of military and public health importance. Future zoonotic surveillance efforts will seek to develop local capacity for zoonotic surveillance focusing on high risk populations at the human-animal interface.     

基于Pubmed数据库检索的人兽共患病及其病原微生物研究现状与趋势分析

目的 获得全球范围内人兽共患病及其病原微生物研究现状和热点变化趋势信息,为我国人兽共患病的防控提供参考。方法 利用COOC 12.6和Citespace 5.8 R1软件对Pubmed数据库中的人兽共患病及其病原微生物相关的关键词进行了频次统计、共现分析、聚类分析、时间线分析和突现词分析。结果 根据Pubmed数据库中 2001—2021年关键词频次统计和共现分析结果,国际关注度较高的人兽共患病及其病原微生物有以下3类:第1类为常见的人兽共患病病原,包括布鲁菌（Brucella）、戊型肝炎病毒（hepatitis E virus）、链球菌（Streptococcus）、大肠杆菌（Escherichia coli）和沙门菌（Salmonella）等,需要持续关注;第2类为近些年在国际上被广泛关注的人兽共患病病原,如新型冠状病毒（SARS-CoV-2）和甲型流感病毒（influenza A virus）等,需要更为深入研究,以尽早控制这些病原的扩散;第3类为在国外特定地区曾大规模出现的人兽共患病,如Q热（Q fever）和中东呼吸综合征（middle east respiratory syndrome,MERS）等,应当重点关注其输入性风险,避免这些疾病在我国暴发。除疾病和病原微生物外,与检测和诊断相关的关键词,如系统发育（phylogeny）和聚合酶链式反应（PCR）等关键词的关注度也较高。聚类分析生成了10个聚类,蜱媒传染病大类提示蜱虫在人兽共患病传播中的作用。时间线和突现词分析结果显示,在病原微生物中,对甲型流感病毒以及新型冠状病毒等的关注度还在逐渐增加。同时,病原微生物检测技术正在从特定序列检测向全基因组学检测技术发展,这些领域极有可能是今后的研究方向和趋势。结论 结果提示,人们对人兽共患病及其病原微生物研究的关注度越来越高,人兽共患病病原微生物检测技术正在发生更新和迭代。我国应重点关注甲型流感以及新型冠状病毒肺炎等疾病的防控,并适当关注蜱媒传染病。这些信息的获取可为我国的人兽共患病的防控提供参考。     

Cross-border molecular tracing of brucellosis in Europe

To assess the general impact of endemic countries on the re-emergence of brucellosis in non-endemic regions of the European Union, the genetic fingerprints of Brucella melitensis strains imported to Germany were compared to ovine strains from Turkey in a molecular epidemiological study. Genotyping of 66 Brucella strains (based on Multiple Locus of Variable number of tandem repeats Analysis) isolated from German travellers and Turkish immigrants living in Germany revealed epidemiological concordance with 20 sheep isolates originating from Eastern Anatolia, Turkey. In summary, cross-border molecular tracing confirmed brucellosis being a zoonosis of concern for European public health.     

Zoonotic disease awareness survey of backyard poultry and swine owners in southcentral Pennsylvania

Owners of small backyard poultry and swine operations may be at higher risk of zoonotic diseases due to husbandry inexperience and/or a lack of knowledge. Backyard poultry and swine owners in southcentral Pennsylvania were surveyed regarding their knowledge and attitudes towards zoonotic disease prevention. One hundred and six backyard poultry and/or swine owners completed the survey (74 poultry, 15 swine, 17 both), which included questions on demographics, flock/herd characteristics, recognition of selected zoonotic diseases and clinical signs in animals, and biosecurity practices for visitors and owners. Most responded that they were aware of avian (92.2%) and swine (84.4%) influenza, and were less aware of other zoonotic diseases such as salmonellosis and brucellosis. The majority of backyard poultry and swine owners combined (62.9%) reported allowing visitors freely around their animals and did not require any special precautions. Backyard poultry and swine owners most commonly reported rarely (32.7%) or never (28.9%) wearing work gloves and never (57.1%) wearing nose/mouth coverings, such as a respirator mask, while handling animals or manure. The study findings indicated that veterinarians (61.5%) and the Internet (50.0%) are the main sources where small‐scale farm producers seek animal disease information. Approximately one‐third (34.9%) of the respondents reported receiving seasonal influenza vaccine. The findings of this study will be utilized to provide targeted veterinary and public health education for the prevention of zoonotic diseases in backyard farm animal settings in Pennsylvania.     

近年来牛主要细菌性传染病及其流行特点

近年来,牛的细茵性传染病呈现出抬头趋势,并显示出一些新的流行特点.通过收集分析近几年来国内外牛细菌性传染病的大量资料,发现布鲁菌病、结核病、副结核病、巴氏杆菌病、炭疽、沙门茵病和大肠埃希茵痛等牛常发的细茵性传染病,其流行病学规律出现了一些新的特点,可为今后牛细茵性传染病的预防和控制提供参考.     

Zoonoses control--new challenges in health protection of consumers]

The eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis of domestic stock in Germany through the combined efforts of veterinary medicine, the agricultural section and the state was an historic achievement. Since the two diseases are zoonoses, their successful control can also be seen as a valuable contribution to public health. Both these zoonoses are classic animal diseases presenting themselves as clinical entities complete with gross pathological lesions. In contrast, today we are confronted with pathogens causing zoonoses characterised by latent, i.e. clinically inapparent herd infections that do not result in visible tissue changes. Nevertheless, through contaminated foodstuffs, these pathogens contribute to food-borne infections leading to the outbreak of genuine zoonoses in humans. It has been estimated that there could be as many as two million cases of food-borne infections annually in Germany. Among them are salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, yersiniosis, infections with verotoxin producing E. coli, listeriosis and toxoplasmosis. While the national animal disease legislation only foresees the control of notifiable diseases, the basis for zoonoses control is laid down in the EU Zoonosis-Directive, which is presently awaiting its transposition into national law and into practice. In order, for instance, to combat the most important Salmonella infections of humans, Integrated Quality Systems (IQS) have been formulated as a means of implementing the proven HACCP concept in animal production units and ensuring animal health from the point of view of consumer protection. The aim of all measures must be to free infected herds of pathogens, to investigate and eliminate all sources with a potential for further pathogen introductions, to maintain pathogen-free herds--with a reduced pathogen challenge in mid-term time periods--, as well as to develop diagnostics capable of identifying pathogen carriers before slaughter. For the disinfection of stock, it is important to have epidemiological data collecting systems and information systems that allow complete diagnostic tracing from herd to slaughterhouse and vice versa. All sides, including research and surveillance, as well as producers are called upon to actively share in protecting the health of consumers as far as it is threatened by latent infections in domestic stock.     

The occurrence and significance of Chlamydia psittaci and Coxiella burnetii in dogs and cats. A study of the literature

With this review of the literature it is demonstrated that not only infections with Chl. psittaci and C. burnetii do occur in dogs and cats in the Federal Republic of Germany but also clinical diseases caused by these agents may occur. Especially in diseases with uncharacteristic symptoms both bacteria have to be taken into consideration as causative agents. Since both agents cause zoonotic infections a correct diagnosis is of special importance, especially if the owner of a diseased dog or cat or members of his family show signs of disease also. In cases of unidentified disease or of a rickettsial zoonosis identification of the causative agent must be tackled by cultural or serological investigation. Direct or cultural identification is often not possible so that serological techniques have to be applied. Besides established serological techniques sensitive enzyme immunoassays are useful tools for securing a diagnosis.     

布鲁氏菌病概述及防控对策

布鲁氏菌病,简称布病,是世界上最常见的人畜共患疾病之一,是一种由布鲁氏菌属（Brucella）的细菌感染机体引起的传染－变态反应性人畜共患病,严重危害到畜牧业的发展和人类的健康。由于布鲁氏菌病的根除是一项昂贵、耗时且劳动密集型的工程,这些战略和措施在资源有限的国家难以有效实施,目前只有少数发达国家实现了动物布鲁氏菌病的消除,而在发展中国家,布鲁氏菌病的感染及防控仍然是一个严重的问题。现对布病的生理特征、在陕西地区的流行情况及对家畜的危害进行分析总结,并提出相应的防控策略,旨在更进一步提高布病的防控意识,更有效科学的进行布病防控。     

Public Health Argument to Retain Current UK National Controls for Tick and Tapeworms Under the Pet Travel Scheme

At present, the European Council is debating whether the current national controls under the Pet Travel Scheme (PETS), which aims to prevent the introduction of rabies and tapeworms or live ticks and their associated diseases into the United Kingdom (UK), should be harmonized amongst European Union (EU) Member States. There is a strong case to support the retention of control measures on human health grounds. Although many are aware of the implications of rabies infection, few realize the risk to the UK population if current tick and tapeworm controls under PETS were to be removed. If this were to occur, there is a risk that a number of diseases of human health importance may be introduced and become established in the UK. Such diseases include alveolar echinococcosis, tick borne encephalitis, tularaemia and Mediterranean spotted fever; all of which are found in other EU Member States but do not occur in the UK. These four diseases are responsible for a significant burden of disease in Europe, and current national controls under PETS have been highly effective in so far preventing their introduction into the UK.     

Travel medicine of parasitic diseases in the dog

Companion animals are increasingly brought along by their owners to foreign countries. Thus, small animal travel medicine is becoming more important. The field includes both prophylaxis and metaphylaxis against various infectious diseases, as well as their diagnosis and treatment. Dogs returning from Southern Europe, but also from more tropical regions, may be infected with exotic pathogens. In addition, imported pedigree or working dogs, and especially stray dogs imported through welfare organisations, are at high risk.The present overview summarises the clinical and practical aspects of exotic parasitic diseases that may affect such dogs, and the risk of such diseases becoming autochthonously transmitted in Switzerland. Furthermore, the zoonotic potential of these infections will be considered.     

Zoonoses transmitted by mouse and rat maintained as laboratory or pet animals

Large numbers of mice (Mus spp.) and rats (Rattus spp.) are maintained for scientific reasons and as pet animals in Germany. While laboratory animals are monitored for pathogenic agents, the hygienic status of pet animals is usually completely unknown. Despite great efforts, zoonotic infections were reported even in laboratory settings, e.g. with Hantavirus (Seoul virus), Streptobacillus moniliformis, and Trichphyton mentagrophytes. However, in current reports, zoonotic infections were transmitted by mice and rats maintained as pet animals. This includes infections by Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Leptospira interrogans, Streptobacillus moniliformis, Salmonella enterica, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and Ornithonyssus bacoti. Furthermore, entero-hepatic Helicobacter spp. of rats and mice are currently discussed to be involved in the etiology of hepatobiliary diseases. Pasteurella spp. of mice and rats do not present a risk for human disease comparable to those species that are transmitted by dogs or cats and might induce serious disease after bites. Altogether, this article lists potential zoonotic agents that were detected in mice and rats and are present in Germany, as well as agents that were reportedly transmitted by mice and rats maintained as laboratory or pet rodents.     

Response to an emerging vector-borne disease: Surveillance and preparedness for Schmallenberg virus

Surveillance for new emerging animal diseases from a European perspective is complicated by the non-harmonised approach across Member States for data capture, recording livestock populations and case definitions. In the summer of 2011, a new vector-borne Orthobunyavirus emerged in Northern Europe and for the first time, a coordinated approach to horizon scanning, risk communication, data and diagnostic test sharing allowed EU Member States to develop early predictions of the disease, its impact and risk management options. There are many different systems in place across the EU for syndromic and scanning surveillance and the differences in these systems have presented epidemiologists and risk assessors with concerns about their combined use in early identification of an emerging disease. The emergence of a new disease always will raise challenging issues around lack of capability and lack of knowledge; however, Schmallenberg virus (SBV) gave veterinary authorities an additional complex problem: the infection caused few clinical signs in adult animals, with no indication of the possible source and little evidence about its spread or means of transmission. This paper documents the different systems in place in some of the countries (Germany and the Netherlands) which detected disease initially and predicted its spread (to the UK) and how information sharing helped to inform early warning and risk assessment for Member States. Microarray technology was used to identify SBV as a new pathogen and data from the automated cattle milking systems coupled with farmer-derived data on reporting non-specific clinical signs gave the first indications of a widespread issue while the UK used meteorological modelling to map disease incursion. The coordinating role of both EFSA and the European Commission were vital as are the opportunities presented by web-based publishing for disseminating information to industry and the public. The future of detecting emerging disease looks more positive in the light of this combined approach in the EU.     

Mycobacterium bovis at the animal–human interface: A problem,or not?

Mycobacterium bovis is a pathogen of significant importance in livestock and a wide range of wild animal species worldwide. It is also known to cause tuberculosis disease in humans, a fact which has raised renewed concerns regarding the zoonotic risk for humans, especially those living at the animal-human interface. This review consolidates recent reports in the literature mainly on animal and zoonotic tuberculosis with an emphasis on evolution, epidemiology, treatment and diagnosis. The information presented reveals the fundamental differences in the complexity and level at which the disease affects the economy, ecosystem and human population of regions where animal tuberculosis control is achieved and regions where little or no control is implemented. In conclusion the review suggests that bovine tuberculosis has essentially been reduced to a disease of economic importance in the developed world, while low-income countries are facing a multifaceted impact which potentially affects the health of livestock, humans and ecosystems and which is likely to increase in the presence of debilitating diseases such as HIV/AIDS and other factors which negatively affect human livelihoods.     

动物布鲁氏菌Rev.1疫苗研究进展

布鲁氏菌病（布病）是由布鲁氏菌引起的一种重要的人畜共患病,对公共卫生有着巨大的威胁。布鲁氏菌Rev.1疫苗研制于上世纪50年代中期,并在欧洲、中东和蒙古等地区被广泛应用于小反刍动物布病的防控,一度被认为是防控小反刍动物布病最为有效的疫苗。但是,由于Rev.1疫苗存在毒力偏强及毒力不稳定等现象,其安全性仍值得关注。本文主要从Rev.1疫苗背景及其菌株的生物学特性、疫苗使用情况以及存在的不足等几个方面进行阐述,以期为Rev.1疫苗的应用和布鲁氏菌相关疫苗的开发提供借鉴。     

The socioeconomic burden of parasitic zoonoses: global trends

Diseases resulting from zoonotic transmission of parasites are common. Humans become infected through food, water, soil and close contact with animals. Most parasitic zoonoses are neglected diseases despite causing a considerable global burden of ill health in humans and having a substantial financial burden on livestock industries. This review aims to bring together the current data available on global burden estimates of parasitic zoonoses and indicate any changes in the trends of these diseases. There is a clear need of such information as interventions to control zoonoses are often in their animal hosts. The costs of such interventions together with animal health issues will drive the cost effectiveness of intervention strategies. What is apparent is that collectively, parasitic zoonoses probably have a similar human disease burden to any one of the big three human infectious diseases: malaria, tuberculosis or HIV in addition to animal health burden. Although the global burden for most parasitic zoonoses is not yet known, the major contributors to the global burden of parasitic zoonoses are toxoplasmosis, food borne trematode infections, cysticercosis, echinococcosis, leishmaniosis and zoonotic schistosomosis. In addition, diarrhoea resulting from zoonotic protozoa may have a significant impact.     

Seroprevalence of brucellosis, tularemia, and yersiniosis in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from north-eastern Germany

Brucellosis and tularemia are classical zoonotic diseases transmitted from an animal reservoir to humans. Both, wildlife and domestic animals, contribute to the spreading of these zoonoses. The surveillance of the animal health status is strictly regulated for domestic animals, whereas systematic disease monitoring in wildlife does not exist. The aim of the present study was to provide data on the prevalence of anti-Brucella, anti-Francisella and anti-Yersinia antibodies in wild boars from North-Eastern Germany to assess public health risks. A total of 763 sera of wild boars from Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania hunted in 1995/1996 were tested using a commercially available Brucella suis ELISA, an in-house lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-based Francisella ELISA, and commercially available Western blot kits for the detection of anti-Francisella and anti-Yersinia antibodies. The Yersinia enterocolitica O:9 LPS is able to induce serological cross-reactions indistinguishable from brucellosis due to a similar immunodominant epitope in the Brucella O-polysaccharide. The Yersinia Western blot assay was, therefore, based on five recombinant Yersinia outer proteins which have been proved to be specific for the serodiagnosis of yersiniosis. Anti-Brucella, anti-Francisella and anti-Yersinia antibodies were detected in 22.0%, 3.1%, and 62.6% of the wild boars, respectively. The high seroprevalence of tularemia and brucellosis in wild boars indicates that natural foci of these zoonoses are present in wildlife in Germany. However, the impact of transmission of zoonotic pathogens from wildlife to livestock is unknown. Only careful and systematic monitoring will help to prevent the (re)emergence of these zoonotic diseases in domestic animals and consequently human infection.