Quantitative risk assessment for reclaimed wastewater irrigation on paddy rice field in Korea

Water shortage has become an important issue for Korean agriculture. Korea suffers from a limited agricultural water supply, and wastewater reuse has been recommended as an alternative solution. This study examined the concentrations of toxic heavy metals and Escherichia coli in a paddy rice field irrigated with reclaimed wastewater to evaluate the risk to farmers. Most epidemiological studies have been based on upland fields, and therefore may not be directly applicable to paddy fields. In this study, a Beta-Poisson model was used to estimate the microbial risk of pathogen ingestion. The risk value increased significantly after irrigation and precipitation. The results of the microbial risk assessment showed that risk values of groundwater and reclaimed wastewater irrigation were lower than the values of effluent directly from wastewater treatment plants. The monitoring results of heavy metals for each irrigated paddy fields did not show specific tendency. A risk assessment for toxic heavy metals was performed according to various exposure pathways; however, the results of the carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risk estimation showed that the risk from reclaimed wastewater-irrigated paddy fields was the lowest.     

Integrated nutrient management for environmental-friendly rice production in salt-affected rice paddy fields of Saemangeum reclaimed land of South Korea

This study was conducted in an attempt to determine the proper nitrogen and phosphorus application levels, nitrogen split application ratio, and application method for environmental-friendly rice production in a salt-affected rice paddy field, which was located in the Saemangeum reclaimed tidal belt on the western coast of South Korea, between April 1, 2003 and October 10, 2004. All treatments were replicated three times in a randomized block design (5 m × 4 m plot) with 11 treatments (total 33 plots). We designed three treatments for the evaluation of reasonable application levels of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers (A1–A3); five treatments to evaluate the nitrogen split application system (T1–T5); and three treatments to determine the proper application for chemical fertilizer (M1–M3). There was no significant difference of amylose and protein content among the application levels, application methods, and nitrogen split application ratios (P < 0.05). No significant differences in grain yield and yield components of rice were observed among the different application levels, application methods, and nitrogen split application ratios (P < 0.05). In order to save labor in agricultural households, preserve or enhance the grain quality of rice, and reduce nutrient losses, we determined that the optimum application level of nitrogen fertilizer was 140 kg ha⁻¹; the application split ratio of nitrogen fertilizer at four different periods was 40% for basal fertilization, 20% for maximum tilling stage, 30% for the panicle formation stage, and 10% for the booting stage; and the best application methods were deep layer application and whole layer application.     

A quick determination of root resistance to water transport in paddy rice

Hydraulic resistance in plants is one of the most important factors responsible for changes in leaf water potential that is an indicator of plant water stress. Although the hydraulic resistance to passive water transport (R_pa) is a robust index in paddy rice (Oryza sativa), measurement is both time-consuming and labour-intensive. Here, we describe on a quick method to measure hydraulic resistance to osmotic water transport (R_os) by measuring the xylem sap exudation rate and osmotic water potential. In a greenhouse experiment, R_os responded significantly to soil temperature, but under field conditions soil temperature varied considerably less than air temperature. In the field experiment, R_os of six rice cultivars at two growth stages was strongly positively correlated with R_pa. We conclude that measuring R_os could be used to evaluate root water transport capacity in paddy rice under conditions with adequate soil water.     

The multi-functionality of paddy farming in Korea

The multi-functionality of paddy field and irrigation water has become a hot issue recently in Asian monsoon regions. Asian people know why they have to conserve the paddy farm where the sustainable functions have been historically inherited and maintain the rural community where the unique cultures have been traditionally created. But, the real value of multi-functionality has not been clearly highlighted as much worthy as it has. We should evaluate the characteristics of multi-functionality of paddy farming correctly and transmit them to the people of Western countries under quite different conditions of upland fields. In Korea, several studies on the multi-functionality of paddy farming have been performed with positive and negative viewpoints. This paper shows the results and the discussion of the researches to get global recognition on the multi-functionality of paddy farming.

Delivery management water requirement for irrigation ditches associated with large-sized paddy plots in Korea

Delivery management water requirement (DMWR) is the use of bypass water in paddy field irrigation to help maintain desired water levels in irrigation canals and to distribute water to paddy plots in a uniform manner. Diverted irrigation water (DIW), DMWR, and the DMWR/DIW ratio were investigated for concrete lined irrigation ditches with large-sized paddy plots (100 m×100 m) during irrigation periods (May to mid-September). DIW and DMWR were measured at 5- to 10-day intervals at the inlets and outlets of irrigation ditches on stable water supply days. The mean DMWR/DIW ratios in irrigation ditches L₁ and L₂ over 3 years were 36 and 34%, respectively. The mean DMWR/DIW ratios displayed month-to-month and year-to-year variation. The monthly mean DMWR/DIW ratios were highest (55 and 71%) in June and lowest (<20%) in August and September. The annual mean DMWR/DIW ratios during a dry year markedly decreased to 11%, compared with 42% in other years. The decrease was due to the small DIW and farmers water management to maximize capture of limited irrigation water during the drought. The DMWRs in May and June were significantly (p<0.01) correlated with the DIWs, indicating that high DMWR in May and June are attributed to excessive DIW.     

Improved water and rice residue managements reduce greenhouse gas emissions from paddy soil and increase rice yields

Paddy and Water Environment - Optimization of land-use practices of rice cultivation for the mitigation of the most significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture methane (CH4) and...     

Surface and subsurface losses of N and P from salt-affected rice paddy fields of Saemangeum reclaimed land in South Korea

The present study was carried out to evaluate nutrient losses that occur during the course of agricultural activity from rice paddy fields of reclaimed tidal flat. For this study, we chose a salt-affected rice paddy field located in the Saemangeum reclaimed tidal area, which is located on the western South Korean coasts. The plot size was 1,000 m² (40 m × 25 m) with three replicates. The soil belonged to the Gwanghwal series, i.e., it was of the coarse silty, mixed, mesic type of Typic Haplaquents (saline alluvial soil). The input quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus (as chemical fertilizer) into the experimental rice paddy field were 200 kg N ha⁻¹ and 51 kg P₂O₅ ha⁻¹ per annum, and the respective input quantities of each due to precipitation were 9.3–12.9 kg N ha⁻¹ and 0.4–0.7 kg P ha⁻¹ per annum. In terms of irrigation water, these input quantities were 4.5–8.2 kg N ha⁻¹ and 0.3–0.9 kg P ha⁻¹ per annum, respectively. Losses of these nutrients due to surface runoff were 22.5–38.1 kg N ha⁻¹ and 0.7–2.2 kg P ha⁻¹ for the year 2003, and 26.8–29.6 kg N ha⁻¹ and 1.6–1.9 kg P ha⁻¹ for the year 2004, respectively. Losses of these nutrients due to subsurface infiltration during the irrigation period were 0.44–0.67 kg N ha⁻¹ and 0.03–0.04 kg P ha⁻¹ for the year 2003, and 0.15–0.16 kg N ha⁻¹ and 0.05–0.06 kg P ha⁻¹ for 2004. When losses of nitrogen and phosphorus were compared to the amount of nutrients supplied by chemical fertilizers, it was found that 11.3–19.1% of nitrogen and 0.5–1.7% of phosphorus were lost via surface runoff, whereas subsurface losses accounted to 0.2–0.8% for nitrogen and only 0.02–0.04% for phosphorus during the 2-year study period.     

Long-term evaluation of the BMPs scenarios in reducing nutrient surface loads from paddy rice cultivation in Korea using the CREAMS-PADDY model

Curbing nutrient loads from rice cultivation has been an issue for the water quality management of surface water bodies in the Asian monsoon region. The objectives of this study were to develop paddy BMP scenarios and to evaluate their effectiveness on nutrient loads reduction using long-term model simulation. Totally five BMP scenarios were developed based on the three paddy farming factors of drainage outlet height, fertilizer type, and application amount and were compared with conventional practices. CREAMS-PADDY model was chosen for the paddy nutrient simulation, and two-year field experimental data were used for the model calibration and validation. The validated model was used to evaluate the developed BMP scenarios for the 46 years of simulation period. The observed nutrient loads were 15.2 and 1.45 kg/ha for nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively, and mainly occurred by early season drainage and rainfall runoff in summer. The long-term simulation showed that the soil test-based fertilization and drainage outlet raising practice were the two most effective methods in nutrient loads reduction. The combination of these two resulted in the greatest loads reduction by 29 and 37 % for T-N and T-P, respectively (p value < 0.001). Overall the effectiveness of the BMP scenarios was decreased in the wet season. As the conclusion, outlet height control and soil nutrient-based fertilization were suggested as the effective practices in paddy loads reduction and their combination can be a practicable BMP scenario for the paddy nutrient management.     

Spatial-uniform application method of methane fermentation digested slurry with irrigation water in the rice paddy field

Promoting biomass utilization, the objectives of this study were to clarify the spatial distribution of nitrogen, one of the most important fertilizer components in the methane fermentation digested slurry (i.e., the digested slurry), and to establish an effective method to apply spatial-uniformly digested slurry with irrigation water in the rice paddy field. A numerical model describing the unsteady two-dimensional flow and solution transport of paddy irrigation water was introduced. The accuracy of this model was verified with a field observation. The tendencies of the TN simulated in inlet and outlet portions had good agreement with the measured data and the accuracy of the numerical model could be verified. Using the numerical model, scenario analyses were conducted to determine the method for spatial-uniform application of the digested slurry with irrigation water. The simulated results indicated that drainage of the surface water and trenches at the soil surface were effective for spatial-uniform application of the digested slurry with irrigation water in the rice paddy fields. The effect of the trenches was maximized when the surface water of the rice paddy field was drained adequately.     

Mass balance analysis in Korean paddy rice culture

A field experimental study was performed during the growing season of 2001 to evaluate water and nutrient balances in paddy rice culture. Three plots of standard fertilization (SF), excessive fertilization (EF, 150% of SF), and reduced fertilization (RF, 70% of SF) were used and the size of treatment plot was 3,000 m², respectively. The hydrologic and water quality was field monitored throughout the crop stages. The water balance analyses indicated that approximately half (47–54%) of the total outflow was lost through surface drainage, with the remainder consumed by evapotranspiration. Statistical analysis showed that there was no significant effect of fertilization rates on nutrient outflow through the surface drainage or rice yield. Reducing fertilization of rice paddy may not work well to mitigate the non-point source nutrient loading in the range of normal farming practices. Instead, the reduction in surface drainage could be important to controlling the loading. Suggestive measures that may be applicable to reduce surface drainage and nutrient losses include water-saving irrigation by reducing ponded water depth, raising the weir height in diked rice fields, and minimizing forced surface drainage as recommended by other researchers. The suggested practices can cause some deviations from conventional farming practices, and further investigations are recommended.     

Predicting water surface evaporation in the paddy field by solving energy balance equation beneath the rice canopy

The energy flux on the ground surface depends not only on climatological and biophysical controls in the vegetative canopy, but also on the available energy and energy partitioning beneath the canopy. Quantifying the evaporation and energy partitioning beneath the canopy is very important for improving water and energy utilization, especially in arid areas. In this study, we measured meteorological data, the net radiation and latent heat flux beneath the rice canopy, and then applied the radiation and energy balance equations to get the water surface temperature beneath the rice canopy. To apply the equations, we constructed shortwave and longwave radiation beneath the canopy sub-models and a bulk transfer coefficient sub-model. A plant inclination factor was parameterized with plant area index for the shortwave and longwave radiation sub-models. Bulk transfer coefficient was parameterized by plant area index and soil heat flux was predicted by the force restore model. With calculated water surface temperature and constructed sub-models, we reproduced net radiation and latent heat flux beneath the rice canopy. As a result, the reproduced water surface temperature, net radiation, and latent heat flux beneath the rice canopy were very close to the measured values and no significant differences were found according to 2-tail t test statistical analysis. Therefore, we conclude that these constructed sub-models could successfully represent water surface temperature, net radiation, and latent heat flux beneath the rice canopy.     

IoT-based smart crop-field monitoring of rice cultivation system for irrigation control and its effect on water footprint mitigation

Paddy and Water Environment - Rice is the staple food and one of Thailand's economic crops. However, rice cultivation consumes a large amount of water. Therefore, it is necessary to reconsider...     

Appraisal of affordable green subsidy of rice paddy in Taiwan

The study synthesizes the spatiotemporal changes of the multifunctionality and benefit of Taiwanese paddy. The internal and external economic values of the paddy are quantitatively determined. Nationwide as well as regional variation of multifunctionality and benefits from 1999 to 2007 were considered. The substitution cost method was adopted to quantify the external economical values of rice paddy. Moreover, the compensating variation concept was applied to appraise the rational green subsidy of rice paddy in Taiwan. The result shows that the multifunctional benefits of rice paddy from 1999 to 2007 reduce 55, 18, 31, 13, and 28% in north, center, south, east regions, and nationwide of Taiwan, respectively. The reduction is mainly attributable to the significant decrease of rice-planting area. The external benefit may be further diminished if the fallow area increases continuously. In order to maintain the multifunctionality of rice paddy, we appraise a reasonable green subsidy to the cultivated paddy farmers. According to the results of the amount of green subsidy evaluated by the compensating variation concept, the estimated green subsidy is 21,000 NT$/ha for the nationwide paddy farmers. The government may consider to award the appraised green subsidy to paddy farmers directly for the sustainable management of rice paddy in Taiwan.     

Effect of slope on surface drainage in converted rice paddy

Due to the recent regulation of rice production in Japan, it has become necessary to convert rice paddy to other field crops production. To achieve this, drainage conditions, especially for surface drainage, must be improved. We propose the introduction of a slight slope to improve surface drainage, but the optimal slope must be determined in order to prevent soil erosion caused by excessive slope, as well as increased cost. In Japan, a 0.1% slope has recently come into widespread use and, therefore, the impact on surface drainage must be quantified. In this report, observations were carried out to quantify the impact of a 0.1% slope for converted rice paddy and the following results were obtained: (1) An approximate 0.1% slope enables improvement of 46% of the soil surface saturation area as compared to flat conditions about 10 h after inundation; and (2) Inundated water remains on a flat field, while it moves downward toward the end on a sloped field. These results give a basis for determining a slope on a rice paddy in terms of surface drainage improvement. However, the optimal slope should be decided from various perspectives including engineering, agronomy, and economics etc.     

A preliminary investigation for Cu distribution in paddy soil and rice plants in contaminated paddy fields

Paddy and Water Environment - The soil sample of a paddy field was found to be contaminated by copper (Cu). The application of wastewater as the nitrogen fertilizer was identified as the cause in...     

水稻全层施肥技术及试验研究

通过对水稻全层施肥技术的试验,结果表明:全层施肥促进水稻中后期分蘖,增加有效穗数,增加每穗粒数,降低空秕粒,提高水稻产量,还具有减少施肥次数,降低成本的作用。     

A review on microbial and toxic risk analysis procedure for reclaimed wastewater irrigation on paddy rice field proposed for South Korea

Water shortage has become a major agricultural concern, and “The Sustainable Water Resources Research Program” in Korea is currently addressing this problem through the development of treatment systems for reclaiming wastewater and the assessment of human health risks associated with its reuse. Through this program, started in 2001, many studies have examined various water resources. Reclaiming wastewater is one way to alleviate water-shortage pressures, and one of the major potential uses of reclaimed water is irrigation. However, the main concern with reusing reclaimed wastewater is the increased likelihood of human contact that might result in exposure to pathogens and increased health risks. Relatively few studies have examined the toxic risks using reclaimed wastewater for irrigation in rice paddy fields. This study provides an overview of methods for quantitative microbial risk assessment and toxic risk assessment of heavy metal concentrations developed in the previous studies that can be applied to the evaluation of rice paddy fields irrigated with reclaimed wastewater in South Korea.