High variation in frequency of infection by endophytes in cultivars of meadow fescue in Finland

Systemic and asymptomatic Neotyphodium fungal endophytes infect numerous species of the Poaceae. The frequencies of Neotyphodium endophyte infection in Finland were investigated among and within seven Nordic cultivars of meadow fescue, Schedonorus pratensis (Huds.) P. Beauv., which is a widely grown pasture and forage grass species in Scandinavia. The cultivars were Kasper, Salten, Antti, Fure, Ilmari, Inkeri and Kalevi. Frequencies of infection of cultivars varied from endophyte-free cultivar Fure to highly infected cultivar Inkeri [mean (standard deviation of mean) of 0·95 (0·023)]. Mean frequencies of infection of three cultivars remained lower than 0·10, and two of the cultivars, Kasper and Salten, were intermediately infected. In most of the cultivars, frequencies of infection varied only slightly among seed lots. In cultivar Kasper, however, the frequency of endophyte infection was highly variable (0–0·96) among the 45 seed lots examined. The relative importance of cultivar, seed lot and infection by Neotyphodium endophyte to the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi L. was studied experimentally, using both endophyte-free and endophyte-infected plants of four seed lots of the two intermediately infected cultivars. Endophyte infection increased plant resistance to R. padi , overriding the influences of seed lot and cultivar. It is proposed that variation caused by endophyte infections in cultivars of meadow fescue should be taken into account in assessing plant breeding programmes in Europe.     

Effects of systemic fungal endophytes on the performance of meadow fescue and tall fescue in mixtures with red clover

A symbiosis between grasses and systemic fungal endophytes exists in both natural and agricultural grassland communities. Our objective was to examine the effects of systemic endophytes on the competitive ability of two agronomically important grass species: meadow fescue [Festuca pratensis (Huds.) syn. Schedonorus pratensis (Huds.) P. Beauv] and tall fescue [Festuca arundinacea (Schreb.) syn. Schedonorus phoenix (Scop.)]. Plants of meadow and tall fescue were grown for 48 days in replacement series of interspecific mixture with a legume (red clover, Trifolium pratense L.) in different nutrient environments in a greenhouse. Neither of the grass species gained endophyte‐promoted competitive advantage over red clover in grass–clover mixtures. Endophyte infection increased the growth of meadow fescue monocultures by 89% compared to endophyte‐free monocultures in high‐nutrient soils, but plant competition or the cost of endophyte infection to the meadow fescue decreased the yield in resource‐limited conditions. On average, endophyte‐infected and endophyte‐free meadow fescues produced 0·15 and 0·17 g, and 0·14 and 0·14 g dry biomass per plant in mixtures with red clover in high‐ and low‐nutrient soils respectively. In contrast to meadow fescue, endophyte‐promoted growth of tall fescue monocultures was not detected. Endophyte‐infected and endophyte‐free tall fescue monocultures produced 0·76 and 0·95 g biomass per pot, respectively, in the high‐nutrient environment. Endophyte infection can increase the performance of the host grass, but the positive effects depend on the host species, the species composition and soil nutrient availability.     

Fungal endophytes reduce regrowth and affect competitiveness of meadow fescue in early succession of pastures

Systemic‐ and seed‐transmitted fungal endophytes are suggested to enhance competitive dominance of agronomic grasses by increasing plant growth and defence against herbivores. We studied whether Neotyphodium uncinatum endophyte infection frequencies of meadow fescue (Schedonorus pratensis) and botanical composition of pastures are affected by 4, 5, 7 and 21 years of grazing by dairy cattle. We then examined with one greenhouse and two field experiments, whether endophyte infection and clipping affect regrowth of young or mature plants relative to nutrient availability in soil. The frequencies of infected plants and the number of plant species were less in grazed parts of the pastures. Endophytes significantly reduced relative regrowth and dry biomass of regrowth of the grass irrespective of nutrient levels in a 1‐year‐old field (on an average 18% in 2 months) and under high nutrient conditions in the greenhouse experiment (on an average 3% in 3 months) respectively. However, effects of endophytes were not detected in 5‐year‐old fields and under low nutrient conditions in the greenhouse. In contrast to past studies, our results demonstrate that grazing may negatively affect endophyte–grass symbiosis and number of plant species of successional pastures, and suggest that the effects of endophytes may be linked to the ontogeny of the host.     

Biomass and tiller growth responses to competition between Ky31 and MaxQ Festuca arundinacea cultivars and response of Ky31 to exogenously applied liquid preparation of Neotyphodium coenophialum under glasshouse conditions

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) forms a mutualistic symbiosis with the fungal endophyte Neotyphodium coenophialum which produces ergot alkaloids toxic to grazing animals. One approach to reduce pathological effects has been to introduce an exotic endophyte that does not produce toxic compounds yet still confers host‐plant benefits. We measured biomass accumulation and competition between two tall fescue cultivars with different endophytes grown in close proximity and tested if compounds from endophytes can diffuse from one plant to another. Ky31 (tall fescue with natural endophyte) and MaxQ (tall fescue with introduced exotic endophyte) were grown separately and together in a pot experiment under greenhouse conditions. The cultivars had comparable biomass production in monoculture, but when grown in mixed‐culture MaxQ had a significantly lower tiller number (2.92 ± 0.15 tillers/plant) and size (0.048 g ± 0.003) than Ky31 (4.06 ± 0.16 tillers/plant) (0.072 ± 0.002 g). Aqueous endophyte preparations were made and applied topically to E+ and E‐ Ky31. E‐ plants receiving doses of this preparation produced significantly more tillers (3 ± 0.18 tillers/plant) and larger tillers (0.074 ± 0.006 g) than untreated control plants (2.2 ± 0.13 tillers/plant) (0.0428 ± 0.0072 g). These observations suggested that a diffusible compound might induce a growth benefit conferred by the tall fescue endophyte.     

Beneficial effects of Neotyphodium tembladerae and Neotyphodium pampeanum on a wild forage grass

Asexual, vertically transmitted fungal endophytes of the genus Neotyphodium are considered to enhance growth, stress resistance and competitiveness of agronomic grasses, but have been suggested to have neutral or deleterious effects on wild grasses. We studied whether the associations between Bromus auleticus and their endophytes, Neotyphodium pampeanum and Neotyphodium tembladerae, are beneficial for this wild forage grass native to South America. In a greenhouse experiment, 3‐month‐old endophyte‐infected plants (E+) showed enhanced growth relative to their endophyte‐free counterparts (E?). In a one‐year‐long experiment in the field, E+ plants showed higher survival and regrowth rate, and produced more biomass and seeds than E? plants. Only with respect to the seed output did N. tembladerae seem to be detrimental, whereas N. pampeanum did not affect this parameter. No differences were observed with respect to the germination of seeds produced by E+ or E? plants. Loline alkaloids were detected in N. pampeanum‐infected plants. Our results show that, similar to results with agronomic grasses, in wild grasses, the symbiosis with Neotyphodium species could be mutualistic.     

Survival of plants of common sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.) in competition with two companion grass species

A 2-year experiment on competition between sainfoin ( Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.), meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis ) and tetraploid perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne ) was conducted using plants grown in plastic containers outdoors. Root and shoot systems of sainfoin and the grasses were separated in order to investigate full and no competition of root and shoots, at two planting ratios (0·33 grass:0·66 sainfoin and 0·66 grass:0·33 sainfoin). Survival of sainfoin plants was lower at the higher grass:sainfoin ratio. More sainfoin plants died in the winter than during the growing season. Root competition had no effect on survival of sainfoin plants, but shoot competition reduced survival of sainfoin plants during one growing season. Companion grass species had no effect on survival of sainfoin plants, except in the first winter, when fewer sainfoin plants survived when grown with meadow fescue than perennial ryegrass.     

THE EFFECTS OF WHITE CLOVER AND APPLIED NITROGEN ON THE NITROGEN CONTENT OF VARIOUS GRASS/CLOVER MIXTURES

Percentages and yields of N in various grasses and grass mixtures with clover and in associated clover grown at various levels of N application over 5 years are given. Grasses varied consistently in N content, percentages being highest in meadow fescue (cv. S53) and lowest in perennial ryegrass (cv. S24). N application did not significantly affect the N percentage in clover, but the associated grasses had a highly significant effect Percentages were highest in clover associated with meadow fescue and lowest in clover associated with ryegrass. The apparent transfer of N to grass per Ib N in associated clover was calculated for various treatments each year. Reasons for the changing levels of apparent transfer from year to year are considered.     

Some differences between eight grasses within the Lolium-Festuca complex when grown in conditions of severe water shortage

Differences between eight related grasses within the Lolium-Festuca complex in conditions of severe water shortage were investigated. Transparent covers were used to restrict the access of rain to field plots of pure stands of Westerwolds ryegrass ( Lolium multiflorum var. Westerwoldicum), Italian ryegrass ( L. multiflorum ), hybrid ryegrass ( L. multiflorum × L. perenne ), perennial ryegrass ( L. perenne ), meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis ), Italian ryegrass × meadow fescue, perennial ryegrass × meadow rescue, tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ) and three mixtures (Italian ryegrass with perennial ryegrass; Italian ryegrass with tall fescue; perennial ryegrass with tall rescue) grown in west Wales. Westerwolds ryegrass and Italian ryegrass died out after 12–15 months of exclusion of rain; meadow fescue, meadow rescue × ryegrass hybrids and perennial ryegrass died out after ≊ 2 years of exclusion of rain; tall rescue was still alive after 4 years of exclusion of rain. During the 2 years after the year of sowing, the loss of water from the top 1 m of soil was greater with tall rescue than with the other grasses. Tall fescue and perennial ryegrass had a low rate of leaf expansion, a small increase in length of exposed leaf sheath and a high weight per unit area of emerging leaf blade. Tall rescue had a greater number and weight of roots than the other grasses, particularly in the 50–100 cm layer of soil, on an adjoining, uncovered site. The order of suitability of the eight grasses for conditions of severe water shortage appears to be tall fescue > perennial ryegrass > perennial ryegrass × meadow rescue, meadow fescue, Italian ryegrass × meadow rescue, hybrid ryegrass > Italian ryegrass > Westerwolds ryegrass.     

Long-term changes of endophyte infection in tall fescue stands

Pastures of tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ) presumed to be free of the endophytic fungus ( Acremonium coenophialum ) had increasing levels of endophyte, averaging 4% per annum over periods of 9–12 years. Similarly, replicated plots sown at four levels of initial endophyte infection increased in infection over a 4-year period: for example, plots with a 27% initial level increased to 84%, and those with a level of 58% increased to 92% by the fourth year. Mowing plots to prevent seed formation did not affect the rate of change in infection percentage, except that plots with 0% initial endophyte began to show detectable levels in un-mown blocks, presumably as a result of contamination by seed from adjacent infected plots. By the fourth year of the study, fescue plant densities, measured by plant counts, as well as ground cover, were significantly higher in plots with high initial endophyte level. It is proposed that the change in infection percentage was due to enhanced survival of infected plants in mixed stands where there was intense competition for available moisture in conditions of drought.     

Endophytic fungi and alkaloid production in perennial ryegrass in Germany

Infection with Neotyphodium endophyte was detected in 33 of 38 ecotype populations of Lolium perenne originating from old grassland at four widespread sites in Germany. The frequency of individual infected plants of the different populations ranged mostly from 1% to 30%; a few populations showed higher infection levels, up to 80%. The contribution of endophyte-positive plants to the biomass of the original swards was estimated to range from 1% to 34%.
Concentrations of the indole alkaloid lolitrem B detected in the endophyte-positive German ecotypes were similar to those in the endophyte-positive cultivars'Ellett'and'Grasslands Nui', originating in New Zealand, when all were cultivated under the climatic conditions of northern Germany. A seasonal variation in lolitrem B concentrations was observed from 1993 to 1996. The highest concentrations, 0·8–1·4 mg kg⁻¹ dry matter of herbage, were recorded during the months of July and August. These concentrations were not considered to be sufficient to induce'ryegrass staggers', a neurological disorder in grazing animals. It is concluded that further research is necessary to elucidate the implications of grass endophytes under the climatic conditions of Central Europe.     

The susceptibility of agricultural grasses to pre-emergence damage caused by Fusarium culmorum and its control by fungicidal seed treatment

A total of 104 cultivars of six agricultural grass species were compared under controlled conditions for their relative susceptibility to the common soil-borne fungus Fusarium culmorum (W.G.Sm.) Sacc. A number of the perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne ) cultivars showed a high degree of resistance, their emergence being little reduced under the stringent test conditions. The emergence of others was, however, severely affected. Italian ryegrass ( L. multiflorum ) cultivars generally had a high level of resistance, the outstanding exception being cv. Leda Daehnfeldt which proved very sensitive. None of the cultivars of cocksfoot ( Dactylis glomerata ), timothy ( Phleum pratense ), meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis ) or tall fescue ( F. arundinaceae ) which were tested had more than a moderate level of resistance and most were highly susceptible.
The vigour of ryegrass seedlings was, in most cases, closely correlated with percentage emergence but was less closely correlated in the more susceptible species. These often had a very low emergence but those seedlings which did establish were frequently of a size similar to that of healthy plants.
Treatment of grass seed with a fungicide mixture of benomyl (15% a.i.) plus captan (60% a.i.) provided excellent protection against F. culmorum on even the most susceptible cultivars.
Drazoxolon (40% a.i.) was, however, much less effective.     

Endophyte effects on reproduction of a root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne marylandi) and osmotic adjustment in tall fescue

In a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial experiment, plants of one genotype of tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ) were grown in soil in pots in a glasshouse on two occasions. The treatments were either with (E+) or without (E–) infection by the fungal endophyte Neotyphodium coenophialum ; with (N+) or without (N–) inoculation by the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne marylandi ; and with or without water deficit stress. In the first experiment, nematode numbers after 5 weeks had increased 10 times in the E–/N– watered pots and 22 times in the E–/N+ stressed plants. Root dry weight was decreased in all E–/N+ pots, compared with E–/N–. In contrast, nematode numbers in all E+/N+ pots decreased to nearly zero and root dry weight was unaffected. Osmotic adjustment in the growing zone of stressed plants was –0·35 MPa in E–/N– pots, but only –0·10 MPa in E–/N+ pots. Osmotic adjustment was greatest (–0·64 MPa) in E+ pots of both nematode treatments and almost no nematodes survived in the N+ pots. In the second experiment, there was complete nematode mortality in the E+ pots. Plant water relations were unaffected by treatments, however. It is concluded that endophyte-enhanced persistence of tall fescue in M. marylandi -infested soils that are prone to drought may be explained at least partly by endophyte protection of roots from nematode damage. Nematode inhibition by the endophyte may operate in addition to direct influences of the endophyte on enhancing drought tolerance of the host.     

Cattle select against the invasive grass tall fescue in heterogeneous pastures managed with prescribed fire

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) is a Eurasian forage grass extensively planted in the United States. However, an endophytic fungus in tall fescue, Epichloë coenophiala, causes health problems in cattle. We predicted that cattle prefer to graze alternative forages when available. We also predicted that cattle use tall fescue more intensively in recently burned areas, as fire can increase forage quality. We tested these predictions in four diverse‐forage pastures in Iowa, comparing use by cattle of tall fescue and four alternative forages (non‐fescue cool‐season grasses, native warm‐season grasses, non‐leguminous forbs and legumes) to their availabilities at the pasture scale. We also examined how tall fescue influences the distribution of grazing at a fine scale (0.1‐m² quadrats). Tall fescue was the most abundant forage (46% of plants), but composed only 26% of grazed vegetation. In contrast, legumes composed 12% of available forage but 25% of grazed vegetation. Other forages were used in proportion to availability. At a fine scale, total grazing frequency (proportion of plants grazed) was lower in quadrats containing abundant tall fescue, and higher in quadrats with abundant warm‐season grasses. Grazing frequency of tall fescue and other cool‐season grasses was greatest in recently burned quadrats, but total grazing frequency did not increase after burning. Our results show that although cattle graze tall fescue, particularly following burns, they limit their use of this grass. Given that tall fescue is underused, creates health risks for cattle, and degrades wildlife habitat quality, it may be advisable to reduce tall fescue in pastures.     

GRAZING MANAGEMENT FOR SEED PRODUCTION IN LEAFY STRAINS OF GRASSES

Leafy strains of five grasses were grown for seed and subjected to various cattle grazing treatments between October and April for three harvest years. The grasses were: S.143 cocksfoot, S.215 meadow fescue, S.170 tall fescue, S.59 red fescue and S.23 perennial ryegrass. All but S.59 red fescue (row crop) were studied as row and broadcast crops. The plots were sown under an arable silage crop and received top dressings of nitrogenous fertiliser every year. Yield of seed, and also quantity of herbage in winter, were measured.
October grazing in the seeding year reduced the first crop of seed in all species except ryegrass. Grazing in December improved the yield of meadow fescue throughout the experiment, and of cocksfoot, tall fescue and red fescue after the first year. Several factors might operate to bring about this effect; suggestions are made for further investigation. Repeated grazing from December to March tended to reduce vigour, and so to offset the advantage of removing autumn-grown herbage. Grazing at intervals from December to late April seriously reduced yield in all species. Tall fescue and red fescue, early flowering species, were most seriously affected, meadow fescue and perennial ryegrass least. Cocksfoot and tall fescue yielded more seed when grown in 2-ft. rows than when broadcast. Meadow fescue and perennial ryegrass did not. The yield of meadow fescue was less affected by adverse conditions than cocksfoot.     

THE YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF LUCERNE, GRASS AND CLOVER UNDER DIEEERENT SYSTEMS OE MANAGEMENT

The yields of two varieties of lucerne sown alone and in associalion with each of three grasses were compared with similar red clover/grass mixtures over the period 1953–56 under two levels of nitrogenous and potassic fertilizers and two cutting treatments. The main object of the experiment was to gain a wider knowledge of the productivity and chemical composition of lucerne sown alone, and in mixtures, under relatively high rainfall conditions.
The highest production was obtained from Du Puits and its mixtures, which exceeded Grimm and S 123 red clover mixtures. The yields of the lucerne/grass mixtures were not significantly better than those of the pure sown lucerne. Under the most favourable conditions for lucerne, Du Puits eliminated practically all the sown grasses, viz., S 23 ryegrass, S 51 timothy and S 215 meadow fescue.
The application of nitrogen encouraged the growth of the grasses, often at the expense of the legume, especially the slower growing Grimm and S 123. The effect on Du Puits was less marked, but in no case was there a stibstantial increase in actual legume yield. Increasing the level of potassium, although not immediately affecting the yield, proved beneficial to lucerne survival in the later years. The protein yield from the best lucerne plots was found to be double that from pure grass swards heavily fertilized with nitrogen.
Three cuts of lucerne in the first two harvest years had a disastrous effecl on the carry-over of lucerne from the second to the third year. Both varieties of lucerne and their mixtures behaved in a similar fashion, although S 123 red clover appeared to be indifferent to these conditions. It is suggested that the cause of this was the unfavourable weather experienced in 1954.     

Growth and water relations of field-grown tall fescue as influenced by drought and endophyte

Field plots were established in autumn 1992 in which endophyte [ Neotyphodium coenophialum Glenn. Bacon, Price and Hanlin (formerly Acremonium coenophialum )]-infected (E⁺) and endophyte-free (E⁻) isolines of three tall fescue [ Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) genotypes were planted. Plants were subjected to three water-withholding periods in 1993 and one in 1994, or were kept well watered throughout the experiment. There were no consistent endophyte effects for leaf elongation, tiller density or dry weight per tiller. There were genotype X endophyte interactions ( P <001) for tiller density and shoot dry weight per area and genotype X water X endophyte interactions ( P <005) for cumulative leaf elongation in 1993. These interactions indicated the highly specific effect of host genotype-endophyte association on the expression of plant growth. Leaf rolling in the stressed treatments was more severe in E⁻ than in E⁺ plants in 1993, but there were no differences in 1994, and stomatal conductance tended to be lower in E⁻ than in E⁺ plants in 1993. Fractional water content of the lower 3 cm of the youngest fully developed leaf sheath was usually greater, and never less, in E⁺ than in E⁻ plants. The leaf rolling and stomatal conductance results suggest that E⁻ plants were more severely stressed in the summer after planting. Thus, the endophyte may induce greater water retention in the leaf sheath and therefore better protect the internal growing zone from lethal desiccation.     

Mice find endophyte‐infected seed of tall fescue unpalatable – implications for the aviation industry

Bird strike is a significant problem for the aviation industry, caused in part by the attractiveness of the grass surrounding airports to birds. Endophyte‐infected grasses such as Avanex^® have been shown to reduce bird populations at airports through the production of secondary metabolites. These metabolites are unpalatable to herbivorous, omnivorous and granivorous birds and are known to reduce insect densities, thereby making the sown areas less attractive to insectivorous birds. Raptors also provide a bird‐strike threat which could be reduced by controlling mouse populations around airports. In this study, the effect of endophyte‐infected seed on mouse feeding behaviour has been investigated. By performing a choice trial offering diets containing endophyte‐infected and endophyte‐free tall fescue seed, it was shown that endophyte‐infected seed was less palatable to mice (P < 0·001 in a 14‐d trial). Furthermore, when diet positions were reversed, mouse feeding behaviour was modified to again select endophyte‐free material (P < 0·001 over a further 14 d). This result shows that endophyte‐infected grasses could not only be used in the control of bird populations but they also have the potential to control mouse populations which in turn would decrease the number of raptors. This use of endophyte‐infected grasses in areas surrounding airport runways shows great promise for the aviation industry.     

The production and persistency of different grass species cut at different heights

The effect of two heights of cutting (5 and 8 cm) on the dry matter harvested and persistency of a range of different grass species and varieties were monitored over a 3-year period (1976 to 1978). Dry matter harvested was measured in the second and third harvest year and persistence of sown grass was assessed at the end of the first and third harvest year. The grasses were managed under a frequent cutting system, i.e. simulated grazing. Results showed that at the low cutting height tetraploid hybrid ryegrasses and diploid Italian ryegrasses in the third harvest year gave lower annual dry matter harvests of sown grass and were less persistent than at the high cutting height, whilst, in contrast, perennial ryegrasses gave higher annual harvests of sown grass but persistency was unaffected. In general at the low cutting height varieties of cocksfoot, meadow fescue and tall fescue gave comparatively higher annual harvests of sown grass in the second harvest year but lower yields of sown grass in the third harvest year. A notable exception was Cambria cocksfoot which in the second harvest year gave higher yields of sown grass and was more persistent at the low cutting height.
However, at 5 cm cutting height, the proportions of weed grasses (mainly Poa spp.) in swards sown to tetraploid hybrid ryegrasses and diploid Italian ryegrasses were generally greater, particularly in mid-season.     

Yield profile of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) in comparison with meadow fescue (F. pratensis) in Finland

Yield profile characteristics of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), cv. Retu, were compared with those of meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis Huds.). The study was conducted in Finland and was based on official variety trial data recorded between 1980 and 1998 at 17 trial sites between latitudes 60° and 66°N. The crops were managed according to silage‐cutting regimes. The pattern of yield formation of the tall fescue cv. Retu differed significantly from that of meadow fescue cultivars, both within a growing season as well as in sward age. Tall fescue cv. Retu established slowly, and the dry‐matter (DM) yield from the first cut, made in the first year of harvest, was significantly lower than that for meadow fescue. In the second and third years, the DM yield from the first cut did not differ between tall fescue and meadow fescue. Tall fescue produced significantly higher DM yield as regrowth (second and third cuts) than meadow fescue. The sward age significantly affected total DM production. In first‐year swards, there were no significant differences in total DM yield between tall fescue and meadow fescue but, in the second‐ and third‐year swards, tall fescue produced significantly higher DM yields than meadow fescue. The difference in yield profile between tall fescue and meadow fescue was similar in all the environments included in the study. DM yield for the first cut (kg DM ha^–1) for tall fescue cv. Retu, in comparison with meadow fescue cultivars, was 2495 vs. 3099 (P < 0·001), 3735 vs. 3741 (NS, P=0·94) and 3553 vs. 3468 (NS, P=0·30) in the first‐, second‐ and third‐year swards respectively. The respective DM regrowth yields (second plus third cut) were: 6059 vs. 5416 (P < 0·001); 5445 vs. 4221 (P < 0·001); and 5580 vs. 4113 (P < 0·001) in first‐, second‐ and third‐year swards. Total DM yields per season for tall fescue vs. meadow fescue were (kg DM ha^–1) 8554 vs. 8515 (NS, P=0·69), 9180 vs. 7962 (P < 0·001) and 9133 vs. 7581 (P < 0·001) in first‐, second‐ and third‐year swards respectively. Over the three‐year sward rotation period, which is common in Finland, tall fescue produced on average 12% higher DM yield than meadow fescue. Both tall fescue and meadow fescue suffered little winter damage in Finnish conditions; the differences between cultivars of the two species were small. The results indicated that tall fescue cv. Retu is a productive and persistent forage species suited to Finnish growing conditions.     

THE EFFECT OF DRILL WIDTH ON THE SEED PRODUCTIVITY OF LEAFY VARIFTIES OF THREE GRASS SPECIES

Three leafy grass varieties, S215 meadow fescue, S37 cocksfoot and S51 timothy. were subjected to four dril spacings of 6, 15, 24 and 36 in. under two levels of nitrogen application. Over three harvest years, meadow fescue gave better seed yields with 6- and 15-in, drill spacings. Cocksfoot gave very similar yields from 1.5, 24- and 36-in, drills but a signincantly reduced yield from 6-in, spaced drills. Timothy produced significantly higher yields at the 24 in spacing.
The three varieties showed a significant response to nitrogen application.
Aphids seriously affected the vegetative growth of meadow fescue and timothy at the wider spacings, but the 6-in. drills m boths species remained relatively free of aphid attack, as also did the cocksfoot block.