巴西对亚热带免耕土壤有机质组分变化的研究

土壤保护管理制度可以使土壤C和N贮量增加。然而 ,在亚热带气候条件下 ,土壤保护管理制度对颗粒状有机质 (>5 3μm)和矿物结合状有机质 (<5 3μm)的影响 ,人们了解的并不多。巴西科学家研究评价了 3种免耕种植体系———裸露土壤 (BS)、燕麦 +苕子 玉米 +豇豆 (O +V M +C)、玉米 +Cajanus(M +C)对颗粒状有机质和矿物结合状有机质中C和N的长期影响 (12a)。研究在巴西南部砂黏壤强淋溶土上进行。与BS相比 ,有作物覆盖的种植体系中颗粒状有机质和矿物结合状有机质的C和N贮量有所增加 ;与颗粒状有机质相比 ,矿物结合状有机质中C高 5～ 9倍 ,N高 13～ 2 6倍 ;在O +V M +C和M +C中土壤固定了 6 9%～ 80 %的大气CO2 。C和N含量的高低与土壤有机质 (SOM)矿质复合体抵抗生物分解的能力有密切关系。SOM的腐殖化速率和氧化铁 (Fe2 O3)及高岭石含量呈负相关 ,说明SOM与可变电荷矿物之间的相互作用可增强土壤物理稳定性 ,2 0～ 5 3μm、2～ 2 0 μm和 <2 μm的颗粒物部分的电子自旋共振谱法饱和曲线也证实了这一点。SOM与可变电荷矿物之间的相互作用在维持SOM库方面非常重要 ,可增加热带和亚热带土壤作为大气CO2 库的潜力     

不同土地利用方式对黑土有机无机复合体的影响

采用超声波分散、颗粒大小分组法研究不同土地利用方式下黑土有机无机复合体组成及有机碳的分布特征。不同土地利用方式下黑土均以细砂级复合体为主,有机碳含量随粒径增加而减少,C/N比随粒径增加而增加。NP和NPM处理比NF处理土壤<20μm粒级复合体含量减少,>20μm复合体含量增加;草地与裸地相比<20μm粒级复合体含量减少,>20μm复合体含量增加。土地利用方式不同,土壤固碳的机制是不同的,草地生态系统的土壤固碳潜力高于农田土壤。施肥和有机质的输入使土壤各粒级复合体中的有机碳含量增加;使>20μm粒级复合体固持的SOC量比例增加,表明在土壤有机质含量增加的情况下,有机质有向大粒级复合体的积累增加。     

作物间作系统下土壤有机质对土壤侵蚀的敏感性

在土豆种植系统中土壤侵蚀造成的土壤有机质(SOM)损失较低,但随着时间的积累土壤侵蚀可能导致严重的土壤退化。2014—2015年雨季,在肯尼亚卡比特进行了一项实地研究,以确定沉积物颗粒分布对土壤有机质损失的影响,并评估土豆-豆科作物间作系统中最易受土壤侵蚀的土壤有机质组分。本次试验区域包括裸地、纯土豆种植区、土豆-豌豆种植区、土豆-菜豆种植区和土豆-扁豆种植区。采用筛分与比重法将沉积物分离出为53~250μm和小于53μm的团聚体,同时将土壤有机质分离成密度为1.65~1.85g/cm^3的颗粒有机质和2.60g/cm^3的矿物有机质。土壤流失量和流失的土壤有机质含量在不同耕作制度下差异明显,其中纯土豆种植区最高,土豆-扁豆种植区最低。扁豆属藤类植物,有效地确保了地面覆盖的连续性,保护了有机物免受土壤侵蚀,从而证明了豆类覆盖作物在土豆种植系统中对土壤的保护作用。     

风蚀作用下农田土壤细颗粒的粒度损失特征及其对土壤性质影响

以河北坝上地区作为典型研究区,采用野外观测和室内试验分析方法,通过比较农田与邻近天然草地土壤性质之间的差异,研究了农田土壤细颗粒物的损失特征及其对土壤理化性质的影响。结果表明:与风蚀较轻的天然草地相比,农田土壤中黏粒含量下降30%,粉砂含量下降14%;土壤细粒物质的损失粒径集中在0~40μm,其中1.8~24.0μm的细颗粒损失最为严重。由于土壤细颗粒物的损失,土壤砂粒含量相对增加7%,砾石含量相对增加75%,土壤平均粒径增大16%,农田土壤出现明显的粗化、沙化趋势。同时,农田土壤随着养分含量较高的细颗粒损失而变得贫瘠,表现为有机质含量减少29%,全氮含量减少24%,土壤C/N比明显下降,土壤肥力显著降低。土壤细颗粒物的损失对土壤的可风蚀性颗粒含量无明显影响,土壤风蚀可蚀性的变化趋势不明显。     

中国农耕区土壤有机质含量及其与酸碱度和容重关系

对我国农耕区土壤有机质区域变化及其与酸碱度和容重关系进行系统分析,为耕地地力提升和改善土壤结构提供支撑。基于国家级耕地长期定位监测点913个,统计分析全国及7大区域（东北NE、华北NC、西北NW、长江中游MYR、长三角YRD、华南SC、西南SW）耕层土壤有机质含量、酸碱度及容重变化特征。结果表明,全国农耕区耕层土壤有机质含量平均值为22.4~24.8 g/kg。其中有机质含量中等偏低的监测点位占比达72.5%。不同区域耕层土壤有机质含量差异显著（p<0.05）,MYR耕层土壤有机质含量显著高于其他6个区域。全国农耕区耕层土壤pH和容重平均分别为（6.90±1.20）,（1.30±0.15） g/cm³。不同土壤利用方式对土壤有机质、酸碱度及容重产生影响。水田耕层土壤有机质含量显著高于旱地,旱地耕层土壤pH和容重则显著高于水田。亚当斯方程和指数函数分别推荐拟合土壤容重对有机质含量响应关系（R²=0.09,RMSE=0.17,n=759）,以及土壤pH对土壤有机质含量响应（R²=0.16,RMSE=1.24,n=886）。全国农耕区耕层土壤有机质含量总体中等偏低,呈现出东南向西北依次降低趋势。土壤pH及容重与土壤有机质呈现显著的负相关关系。亚当斯模型及指数方程能较好地拟合土壤容重及pH对有机质的响应关系,可用于非线性插值法补充土壤容重及pH缺失值。     

几种土壤组分对原有土壤中锌的富集能力的研究

本文研究了我国部分自然土壤中氧化铁、氧化锰及有机质三种组分对原有土壤中锌的富集能力。并比较了不同土壤类型中各组分对锌的富集能力,探讨了土壤环境条件主要为pH对组分富集能力的影响。结果表明,土壤中这三种组分其单位含量对锌的富集能力为:氧化锰>氧化铁>有机质;三:种组分对锌的富集能力在土壤间的变化以氧化铁最为明显,其顺序为石灰性土壤>中性土壤>酸性土壤;土壤pH对土壤氧化铁富集锌能力的影响也很明显。氧化铁对锌的富集分配比例为:酸性土壤<5,中性土壤5—15,石灰性土壤≥15,各土壤组分对锌的富集容量次序为:氧化铁>有机质>氧化锰,氧化铁中,晶形铁>无定形铁。     

风蚀引起的土壤流失和养分损失

该文对新南威尔士西南部风蚀速率、风蚀土壤的特征及耕地上的风蚀沉积物进行了论述。风仅搬走耕地内粒径小于90μm的土壤颗粒,一周内移走的尘土量达4200kg。侵蚀土总合氮量和有机质分别比原土壤多上6倍、11倍。经过20周的侵蚀,耕地表土层细颗粒很少且阳离子交换能力和可持水量均低于周围未侵蚀的土壤。     

添加紫云英对稻田土壤颗粒吸附磷酸盐的影响

【目的】研究添加紫云英(Chinese milk vetch, CMV)对土壤颗粒表面磷素吸附特征的影响机制,为绿肥高效利用提供理论依据。【方法】采用土培试验方法,设置4个紫云英翻压量梯度：CMV0 (0)、CMV1(15000 kg/hm²)、CMV2 (22500 kg/hm²)和CMV3 (30000 kg/hm²),淹水培养30天后,取土样,过250μm筛后,分为细砂粒(48～250μm)、粉粒(2～48μm)和粘粒(<2μm),分别测定土壤有机质、全氮、全磷和有效磷含量,并分别进行磷酸盐的等温吸附和动力学吸附试验。【结果】与CMV0相比,添加紫云英显著提高了土壤颗粒中有机质、全氮、全磷和有效磷含量,尤以砂粒中的提高幅度最大,分别达到33.42%～81.04%、4.83%～15.17%、45.45%～51.52%和40.76%～60.70%;添加紫云英降低了砂粒和粘粒的比表面积,但是提高了粉粒的比表面积。土壤颗粒对磷素的吸附可用Langmuir吸附等温线方程很好地拟合,添加紫云英提高了各粒径土壤对磷的理论最...     

不同土地利用与施肥管理下黑土团聚体颗粒有机碳分配变化

土地利用和土壤管理方式的变化强烈影响土壤结构及土壤有机碳的稳定机制。基于长期定位试验,通过分析土壤团聚体粒级及碳分布,以揭示和探讨不同土地利用和施肥管理下东北黑土团聚体颗粒有机碳分配特征及其稳定性机制。通过分析>0.25mm团聚体的变化,草地植被恢复和农田有机培肥团聚体稳定性显著提高。所有处理团聚体碳的分布趋势均表现为:>0.25mm团聚体>微团聚体>粉粘粒。草地粗颗粒有机碳总量和细颗粒有机碳总量均显著高于裸地和无肥处理(p<0.05),表明自然植被恢复可有效提高物理保护颗粒有机碳含量。农田有机培肥明显增加粗颗粒有机质(p<0.05),但并没有提高细颗粒有机质的量。物理保护颗粒有机碳占土壤总碳的比例为10.1%～18.6%,平均约15%。平均重量直径与粗、细颗粒有机碳的相关性达极显著水平(p<0.001),特别是与>2mm团聚体内各颗粒有机质组分碳的相关性更强(r≥0.9,p<0.001)。长期植被恢复和增施有机肥不仅可提高土壤碳库储量,并增强了土壤结构稳定性及土壤组分有机碳的物理性保护。     

北京市延庆县不同土地利用方式下的土壤可蚀性研究

以北京市延庆县上辛庄小流域为研究区域,选择区内农地、杏林、侧柏林、乔灌混交林这4种土地利用方式,通过对土壤水稳性团聚体特征、有机质含量变化以及土壤可蚀性K值进行计算和分析,研究了该区不同土地利用方式下的土壤可蚀性差异特征。结果表明,不同地类土壤团聚体破坏率表现为:农地>杏林>侧柏林>乔灌混交林,林地土壤团聚体结构破坏率显著低于农地(p < 0.05)。农地土壤有机质含量随土层深度的增加呈现一定的上升趋势,林地的土壤有机质含量随土层深度的增加而减小。不同土地利用方式的土壤可蚀性K值存在差异,表现为:乔灌混交林<侧柏林<杏林<农地。表层0-20cm土层土壤可蚀性K值小于20-40cm土层,表明其土壤抗侵蚀能力高于深层土壤,反映出保护表层土壤的重要性。对土壤可蚀性影响因子的分析结果表明,土壤黏粒含量、有机质含量和水稳性团聚体与土壤可蚀性K值的相关关系最为密切(p < 0.05)。     

鼎湖山土壤有机质深度分布的剖面演化机制

根据鼎湖山森林植被带(SL)、灌丛—草甸过渡带土壤剖面(GC)有机质含量,有机质Δ14C、δ13C值,土壤粘粒含量及孢粉分析结果,研究华南亚热带山地土壤有机质深度分布特征的成因机制。结果表明土壤有机质的深度分布特征与土壤剖面的发育过程密切相关,随深度增大,有机质的来源数量不断减少,而成土时间增加,分解作用导致的有机质含量降低幅度增大,有机质含量不断减少。土壤有机质14C表观年龄随深度增加,土壤有机质δ13C值与有机质含量的深度变化具有明显对应关系,这些都是土壤剖面发育过程中有机质不同更新周期组分呈规律性分解的结果。粘粒的深度分布反映土壤剖面淋滤淀积的特点,表明土壤剖面经受了长期成土风化。土壤剖面的上述特征均为剖面发育过程中不断沉积、不断成土的结果,表明土壤剖面成土演化对于有机质深度分布具有显著制约。     

Carbon content in soil particle size and consequence on cation exchange capacity of Alfisols

Abstract

Many of the cultivated soils of sub‐Saharan Africa typically have a surface horizon low in clay and with a low cation exchange capacity (CEC). In these soils, CEC is largely due to the soil organic matter (SOM). Measurements made on long‐term trials show that changes in CEC and SOM are positively correlated to one another, but not of same magnitude, suggesting that not all of the SOM plays an equal role as regards the soil CEC. To study the influence of the different SOM size fractions on the CEC, soils with or without application of manure or compost coming from trials in Chad and Côte d'Ivoire were separated without destruction of the SOM into five organo‐mineral fractions: “coarse sand”;, “fine sand”;, “coarse silt”;, “fine silt”;, and “clay”; made up of particles of sizes between 2,000 and 200, 200 and 50, 50 and 20, 20 and 2, and 2 and 0 μm, respectively. Fractionation was carried out by mechanical dispersion of the soil, wet sieving of the fractions larger than 20 μm, and decanting of the “clay”; and “fine silt”; fractions. The CEC of these fractions increases inversely with their size. The “clay”; fraction which contains half of the SOM contributes about 80% of the CEC of the soils. The CEC of the fractions is largely a function of their carbon (C) content, but the organic CEC per unit C of the “clay”; fraction appears to be four times greater than that of the other fractions (1,000 as against 270 cmol_c kg^‐1). Applications of manure or compost increase the CEC of the soils by increasing the soil C only when this C increase concerns the fine fractions of the SOM.     

应用~(13)C核磁共振技术研究土壤有机质化学结构进展

土壤有机质化学结构对准确评价土壤有机质的稳定性及其在土壤中的功能具有重要意义。土壤有机质化学结构的研究方法中,固态~(13)C核磁共振波谱技术(Solid-state ~(13)C-NMR spectroscopy)具有独特优势,对土壤有机质化学结构的解析更贴近真实状态,近年来已取得诸多新进展和新突破。综述了近年来应用~(13)C-NMR测定土壤全土、团聚体和密度组分、腐殖质组分的有机碳化学结构特征,分析了影响化学结构变化的因素。不同气候条件、植被类型、土地利用管理方式、土壤类型、土壤有机碳含量的全土中有机碳化学结构比较相似,均表现为烷氧碳比例最高,其次为烷基碳和芳香碳,羧基羰基碳比例最低。土壤有机碳主要来源于外源植物残体,植物残体化学结构的相似性可能是导致土壤有机碳化学结构相似的主要原因,环境条件、土壤自身属性和微生物活性的差异使土壤有机碳化学结构产生微小差异。土壤颗粒及化学组分间的有机碳分子结构差异较大,大颗粒有机碳中烷氧碳比例最高,小粒径及与矿物颗粒结合的有机碳中烷基碳和羧基羰基碳比例更高,粉黏粒和腐殖酸组分的有机碳化学结构在土壤类型间差异较大。今后的研究重点应更多地关注土壤有机质来源的定量化分析、土壤微生物对土壤有机碳组分和结构稳定性的贡献及调控机制、土壤有机碳稳定性的生物物理化学保护机制、空间大尺度环境因子/土壤生态过程与微观尺度的有机碳化学分子结构的耦合作用机制、跨学科的多种土壤有机碳化学分子结构测定辨识技术等方面的研究。     

Effects of potato–grain rotations on soil erosion, carbon dynamics and properties of rangeland sandy soils

The potential for wind erosion in South Central Colorado is greatest in the spring, especially after harvesting of crops such as potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) that leave small amounts of crop residue in the surface after harvest. Therefore it is important to implement best management practices that reduce potential wind erosion and that we understand how cropping systems are impacting soil erosion, carbon dynamics, and properties of rangeland sandy soils. We evaluate the effects of cropping systems on soil physical and chemical properties of rangeland sandy soils. The cropping system included a small grain–potato rotation. An uncultivated rangeland site and three fields that two decades ago were converted from rangeland into cultivated center-pivot-irrigation-sprinkler fields were also sampled. Plant and soil samples were collected in the rangeland area and the three adjacent cultivated sites. The soils at these sites were classified as a Gunbarrel loamy sand (Mixed, frigid Typic Psammaquent). We found that for the rangeland site, soil where brush species were growing exhibited C sequestration and increases in soil organic matter (SOM) while the bare soil areas of the rangeland are losing significant amounts of fine particles, nutrients and soil organic carbon (SOM-C) mainly due to wind erosion. When we compared the cultivated sites to the uncultivated rangeland, we found that the SOM-C and soil organic matter nitrogen (SOM-N) increased with increases in crop residue returned into the soils. Our results showed that even with potato crops, which are high intensity cultivated cropping systems, we can maintain the SOM-C with a rotation of two small grain crops (all residue incorporated) and one potato crop, or potentially increase the average SOM-C with a rotation of four small grain crops (all residue incorporated) and one potato crop. Erosion losses of fine silt and clay particles were reduced with the inclusion of small grains. Small grains have the potential to contribute to the conservation of SOM and/or sequester SOM-C and SOM-N for these rangeland systems that have very low C content and that are also losing C from their bare soils areas (40%). Cultivation of these rangelands using rotations with at least two small grain crops can reduce erosion and maintain SOM-C and increasing the number of small grain crops grown successfully in rotation above two will potentially contribute to C and N sequestration as SOM and to the sequestration of macro- and micro-nutrients.     

Variation of intra‐aggregate organic carbon affects aggregate formation and stability during organic manure fertilization in a fluvo‐aquic soil

The aggregate formation and stability are controlled by the dynamics of soil organic matters (SOM), but how it is related to SOM chemical composition within different‐sized aggregates is largely unknown during manure fertilization. In this study, the variations of intra‐aggregate organic carbon (OC), including intra‐particulate organic matter (iPOM) and mineral‐associated organic matter, were quantitatively and qualitatively analysed, and then, their effects on aggregate formation and stability were assessed under four treatments: control (CK), mineral fertilizer (NPK), reduced manure (30%M) and manure fertilizers (M). Manure application (M) significantly increased macroaggregate proportion, mean weight diameter (MWD), and OC contents within different‐sized aggregates compared to CK, NPK, and 30%M. The OC accumulation of macroaggregate in M was attributed to OC content increase in silt plus clay subfraction rather than iPOM with more labile organic groups; oppositely, in microaggregate it was located in the relatively stable fine iPOM. The macroaggregate formation and stability were controlled by the fine iPOM within macroaggregates, whose abundant polysaccharide‐C and aliphatic‐C after manure fertilization advanced the microbial growth except for Gram‐positive bacteria, which further promoted macroaggregate formation and stability. The free silt plus clay fraction also affected macroaggregate formation and stability, and its polysaccharide‐C derived from microorganisms or decomposing SOM was positively associated with MWD and macroaggregate proportion. Because polysaccharide‐C can be easily associated with mineral particles, further improving micro‐ or macroaggregation. We conclude that continuous manure fertilization could increase labile SOM accumulation within aggregates and then facilitate microbial growth, which collectively are responsible for aggregate formation and stabilization.     

Interactions between tree seedling roots and humus forms in the control of soil C and N cycling

The hypothesis that roots enhance soil-N turnover in humified soil organic matter (SOM) (mull) but not in lignified SOM (mor) was tested in a study involving the growth of eight species of tree seedlings on the two contrasting humus forms. After 12 and 22 weeks of seedling growth, soil-CO₂ efflux was measured with (1) growing seedlings, and after 22 weeks, with (2) roots only, shoots excised, and (3) with roots removed and soils amended with different rates of glucose. Indices of C-flux and of soil available-C were derived and compared to plant-N uptake, extractable soil mineral-N, anaerobically mineralized soil-N, N bioavailability to Agrostis grass following harvest of seedlings, and to seedling fine root C-chemistry. Significant soil x species interactions were found for total soil-CO₂ efflux, root-dependent CO₂, soil available-C and microbial biomass. In all cases, roots were important contributors to C-cycling in the mull soil but not in the mor soil. C was more limiting in the mor than in the mull microbial community. Plant-N uptake and the mineral-N pool was greater in the mor soil, reflecting that soil's higher specific N-supplying capacity (N-mineralized:CO₂). Seedlings decreased the mineral-N pool in both soils, but the presence of roots increased N-mineralization in the mull soil and decreased N-mineralization in the mor soil. Significant positive relationships were observed in the mull soil only between soil respiration and plant N uptake at mid-season, and between soil respiration and N-mineralization at late-season. Birch root activity in the mull soil was greater than that of all other seedlings and this observation is discussed with respect to the autecology of birch. Soil respiration correlated with the non-polar extract content but not the lignin:N ratio of fine roots. Results suggest that root-released C in mull SOM is sufficient to relieve energy limitation to soil microbes and allow them to access appreciable amounts of soil-N, whereas ligninolytic activity, which may ultimately control soil-N turnover in mor SOM, is not increased by rhizodeposition.     

耕作侵蚀对紫色土坡耕地土壤容重和有机质二维分布的影响

为了研究耕作侵蚀对坡耕地土壤容重、有机质以及两者相互关系的影响,选择四川盆地中部的简阳县的坡耕地作为研究对象,采用模拟耕作的方法,通过对比模拟耕作前与5次、20次模拟耕作之后的土壤容重、有机质的水平以及垂直变化与分布规律,并探讨耕作侵蚀对两者关系变化的影响规律。研究结果表明:由于耕作侵蚀的搬运作用,5次和20次耕作之后坡顶位置的表层土壤被不断搬运至下坡位置,从而导致坡顶表层土壤容重增加;并且耕作过程中锄头的翻转作用改变了土壤容重在垂直方向的分布。耕作前土壤有机质在各坡面位置的垂直分布可用对数方程描述,然而5次和20次耕作之后其两者之间没有显示任何关系。耕作前土壤有机质含量与土壤容重呈现显著的负相关关系,5次和20次耕作之后,土壤有机质和土壤容重之间无相关关系。因此,耕作侵蚀改变土壤有机质和容重在水平和垂直方向的分布并且改变有机质和容重之间的关系。     

长期施肥对水稻土不同功能有机质库碳氮分布的影响

土壤有机质(SOM)对于维持农业生产力、提高土壤质量和增加土壤固碳均具有非常重要的意义。以红壤水稻土35年的长期定位试验为依托,借助近期发展的物理―化学联合分组方法,探讨了长期施肥对水稻土不同功能SOM库含量、SOM库碳氮含量变化和分配比例的影响。结果表明,长期施肥尤其是有机无机配施处理显著增加了未保护游离SOM库(c POM和f POM)和纯物理保护SOM库(i POM)在土壤中的含量以及它们的土壤有机碳(SOC)和全氮(TN)含量。未保护游离SOM库的SOC和TN含量占总有机碳和全氮比例在有机无机配施处理下最高,分别达35.9%和33%。与CK相比,有机无机配施使生物化学保护库非水解游离粉粒组(NH-d Slit)和非水解游离黏粒组(NH-d Clay)含量分别降低了15%和9.5%(p0.05)。物理―化学保护SOM库、物理―生物化学保护SOM库以及化学保护SOM库含量受长期施肥影响不显著。综上,研究表明土壤不同功能SOM库对长期施肥的响应不同。有机无机配施是提升红壤水稻土SOM数量和质量的最佳培肥措施。     

Invertebrate control of soil organic matter stability

 The control of soil organic matter (SOM) stability by soil invertebrates is evaluated in terms of their impact on the inherent recalcitrance, accessibility to microorganisms, and interaction with stabilizing substances of organic compounds. Present knowledge on internal (ingestion and associated transformations) and external (defecation, constructions) control mechanisms of soil invertebrates is also reviewed. Soil animals contribute to the stabilization and destabilization of SOM by simultaneously affecting chemical, physical, and microbial processes over several orders of magnitude. A very important aspect of this is that invertebrates at higher trophic levels create feedback mechanisms that modify the spatio-temporal framework in which the micro-food web affects SOM stability. Quantification of non-trophic and indirect effects is thus essential in order to understand the long-term effects of soil biota on SOM turnover. It is hypothesized that the activities of invertebrates which lead to an increase in SOM stability partly evolved as an adaptation to the need for increasing the suitability of their soil habitat. Several gaps in knowledge are identified: food selection and associated changes in C pools, differential effects on SOM turnover, specific associations with microorganisms, effects on dissolution and desorption reactions, humus-forming and humus-degrading processes in gut and faeces, and the modification of invertebrate effects by environmental variables. Future studies must not be confined merely to a mechanistic analysis of invertebrate control of SOM stability, but also pay considerable attention to the functional and evolutionary aspects of animal diversity in soil. This alone will allow an integration of biological expertise in order to develop new strategies of soil management which can be applied under a variety of environmental conditions. Received: 6 April 1999