Combinations of trees and crops in the taungya method as applied in Thailand

In Thailand the taungya reforestation method has been practiced primarily in order to rehabilitate wasteland, particularly under the Forest Village Programme. While various combinations of trees and crops are found in the taungya method on a minor scale, the major combinations are teak with upland rice in the north, fast-growing trees with cassava in the northeast, fast-growing trees with maize in the west, and para-rubber or fast-growing trees with fruit trees in the south. These combinations relate to the differences in climatic conditions, mainly the duration of the rainy season.     

Forest villages: an agroforestry approach to rehabilitating forest land degraded by shifting cultivation in Thailand

The Forest village scheme was introduced by the Forest Industries Organisation (FIO) of Thailand in 1967 as an attempt to stop further spread of the fast increasing shifting cultivation and deforestation in the country. The underlying princple of the scheme is to relate reforestation with social welfare of the people involved. It is essentially a modification of the traditional taungya method of plantation establishment.The salient aspect of the scheme is to induce the shifting cultivators to settle down in villages where each family is given tenure over a plot of land to construct a house and develop a homegarden around it. The farmers are required to help establish and maintain forest plantations, in which they are permitted to raise agricultural crops during the first three years of its establishment. The farmers are also given free medical and educational facilities, and technical advice on crop and livestock husbandry. They can also earn cash rewards for successful plantation establishment.Although the scheme has not achieved its full target in terms of area covered and number of families settled, it is proving to be a successful method of luring people away from destructive shifting cultivation. The approach is applicable to other countries and regions with similar land-use problems and socio-cultural background.The paper also examines the constraints to the effective working of the scheme, provides some simple suggestions for improving its functioning and identies some of the issues that can easily be tackled by research.     

Benefit-cost analysis of selected agroforestry systems in Northeastern Thailand

Potential productivity and financial returns from selected agroforestry systems and traditional monocrops located in the Phu Wiang watershed were estimated from limited trials of cropping alternatives using cost-benefit analysis. The agroforestry systems studied consisted of combinations of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), or Acacia (Acacia auriculiformis) inter-cropped with cassava (Manihot esculenta) or mungbean (Vigna radiata). Evidence from trials at short, 3-year rotations, demonstrate that early supplementary and complementary relationships between some system components can imply synergistic financial gains. Although these biological interactions turn competitive over time, in this case, the gains should be sufficient to make early adopters consider the agroforestry systems financially preferable to traditional monocrops.     

Rural livelihood benefits from participation in the taungya agroforestry system in Ondo State of Nigeria

This study examines the strategies and benefits of the taungya farming system to both the government and the rural economy in Nigeria. An interview survey was conducted in which data were collected from 115 randomly selected farmers in five villages in the Oluwa forest reserve, Ondo State, Nigeria. The study examines the extent of participation of rural dwellers in plantation development through taungya farming and the degree of success of this system as an afforestation method. The farmers were predominantly illiterate, within the age bracket of 35–54 years and with small farm holdings. Twenty nine percent relied totally on food from the forest reserve for their livelihood, while 71% also had farm holdings in free areas. Land within the reserve is allocated to farmers free of charge but compensation is paid to landlords on land from free areas. A statistically significant difference was detected in income from the two sources of farmland for the households and but not in the size of land allocated under taungya and free areas. About 184 farmers are involved in taungya annually, and 410 ha of Tectonia grandis has been established for the government of Ondo State.     

Cost minimization through the use of taungya system in pulpwood plantation establishment

The costs and benefits of the use of three labour alternatives: direct permanent, direct casual and taungya labour in Gmelina arborea pulpwood plantation establishment in Nigeria were investigated. Results show that cost per hectare is lowest with taungya labour and highest with permanent labour with savings in cost of as much as 30% and 47% by taungya labour over casual and permanent labour respectively. The net present value per hectare of investment is highest when taungya labour is used and lowest and negative with permanent labour. Also, the internal rate of return of investment is highest with taungya labour and lowest with permanent labour. The net present values and internal rates of return for Gmelina plantations calculated for the three pulp and paper mills in Nigeria show the same trend in favour of taungya labour.     

Effects of trees on paddy bund on soil fertility and rice growth in Northeast Thailand

A study was conducted in Northeast Thailand on six rice paddy fields on a farm with similar soil (Aquic Quartzipsamments) and with a single tree on the paddy bund. There were 4 tree species: Parinarium anamense, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, D. intricatus, and Samanea saman. Samples of soil (0–10 cm depth) and rice were collected at 3 positions (1, 5–7, and 9–11 m) away from the tree base in 3 replicated tree-soil trasects in each paddy field. Significantly higher pH, organic matter, and nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) were found in paddy fields with S. saman (a legume tree) but grain yield and biomass of rice were significantly lower. Higher soil fertility was found in the positions closer to tree base while grain yields, biomass, and number of tillers were lower, and rice was taller and had more unfilled grain. Shading was deduced to be the key factor responsible for the depressed rice yields and growth at positions closer to tree base especially in the highly shading S. saman.     

Energy crops,livelihoods, and legal deforestation: A case study at Phu Wiang National Park,Thailand

Thailand aims to increase the use of renewable and alternative energy by 25% of total consumption under the Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP 2012–2021) by 2021, which include outputs from energy crops. This initiative is likely to put pressure on land resources, especially near parks and protected areas. Our study examined energy crop plantations, farmer responses to the AEDP, and community roles in forest protection in four villages adjacent to Phu Wiang National Park, Thailand in 2014. The majority of respondents (80%, n = 50) used their land for rice cultivation, but many villagers increased plantings of sugarcane (54%) and cassava (20%) because of high market demand for energy crops. Only a few examples of agricultural expansion into the national park were observed. Nevertheless, encroachment is likely to occur at this and other national parks as a result of government incentives to plant energy crops and the limited availability of agricultural land. Reliance on community-based management strategies may not be powerful enough for villagers to withstand the pressures of modernization, materialism, and other socioeconomic influences, possibly negating the effect of sustainability. Striking an equitable balance between government policies, community development, and forest protection will be a challenge for resource managers.     

A forest of grazing and logging: Deforestation and reforestation history of a boreal landscape in central Sweden

Detailed spatial changes in foreststructure in a central Swedish landscape were examinedusing geographic information system techniques. First,the influence of grazing and burning on forest densityand structure in the 19th century landscape wereanalyzed. Then, the development of the landscapeduring the 20th century, together with the impactof modern forest management methods on foreststructure, were analyzed using historical sources. In1907, over 20% of the 2200 hectare study site wassparsely-wooded (12 m³ ha^–1) with old trees.These areas have been reforested with single-storiedmiddle-aged and old pine stands (66 m³ ha^–1in 1989) during the 20th century. Firesuppression and changes in land use from subsistence-to-industrialforestry, facilitated Norway spruceregeneration as undergrowth in open Scots pine standsafter logging. This natural regeneration has, to alarge extent, been cut down and replaced by pineafforestation. During the second half of the 20thcentury, the standing timber volume has steadilyincreased, while the mean age of the forest hasdecreased. Today's young dense forests will result inhigher timber values in the coming decades, but theforest has lost a range of ecological niches.     

Bird communities and seedling recruitment in restoring seasonally dry forest using the framework species method in Northern Thailand

This study examined the effects of framework trees, planted in 1998, and bird community on the natural recruitment of tree seedling species in a forest restoration experiment designed to test the framework species method of forest restoration established by Chiang Mai University’s Forest Restoration Research Unit (FORRU-CMU). Tree seedlings establishing beneath five framework tree species: Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr., Hovenia dulcis Thunb., Melia toosendan Sieb. & Zucc., Prunus cerasoides D.Don and Spondias axillaries Roxb., were surveyed. Five trees of each species were selected in the 8-year-old trial plots. Birds visiting each tree were observed to determine possible seed dispersal activities. Thirty-six tree seedling species were found beneath the selected trees, of which 11 were wind-dispersed and 25 were animal-dispersed. The population density of animal-dispersed tree seedlings was higher than the wind-dispersed seedlings beneath all selected framework trees. The sample plots beneath P. cerasoides supported the highest population density of tree seedlings. Forty-nine bird species were recorded visiting the framework trees between July 2006 and June 2007. Non-frugivorous birds were recorded more frequently than the frugivorous birds. The effects of birds on seedling recruitment were different among each of the selected framework tree. Bigger trees, which attracted high number of birds by providing food resources, roosting and nesting sites may increase the seed deposition more than smaller trees with fewer attractants.     

Mass propagation method from the cutting of three dipterocarp species

We developed a vegetative propagation system for mass-producing three dipterocarps species,Shorea selanica Bl.,Shorea leprosula Mig., andShorea platyclados Sloot. This system uses fog evaporative cooling inside a greenhouse to reduce the leaf-to-air vapor pressure deficit (leaf-to-air VPD) inside the propagator, even under high irradiance conditions. This cooling method has no negative influence on medium conditions such as overwetting. A plastic tent propagator combined with this cooling method was used for vegetative propagation experiments. In mass-production experiments, the annual rooting percentages from the cuttings were low in the first 2 years (1997–1998) due to operational problems of the tent propagator (S. selanica, 48–51%;S. leprosula, 56–59%;S. platyclados: 50–63%). A hard cover propagator improved the rooting percentages in the mass-production experiments in 1999 because it made operations easier (S. selanica, 70%;S. leprosula, 77%;S. platyclados, 77%). This system, which uses a combination of fog evaporative cooling and a hard plastic propagator, should be useful for the mass propagation of these dipterocarp planting stocks. This study was carried out under a joint project of the Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia and Komatsu Ltd. The project was supported by Research Association for Reforestation of Tropical Forest (RETROF) organized by Japanese Forestry Agency.     

水源涵养林火烧迹地造林更新试验初报

在福州市马尾区亭江镇白眉村白眉水库西侧山场90 hm2的水源涵养林火灾迹地,选择木荷、山杜英、枫香、台湾相思等阔叶树树种,采用不同整地方式和不同造林方式营造水源涵养林试验,2 a的试验结果初步表明,造林更新效果比较理想,选用的树种是合适的,采用带状整地并以营造混交林的方式效果更佳。     

利用宫胁森林重建法恢复和再建山东森林植被

简要介绍了日本横滨国立大学教授宫胁昭（Prof.Akira Miyawaki)创造和倡导的造林法－环境保全林重建法。该方法的理论依据是潜在植被和演替理论，其核心是用乡土树种恢复乡土森林植被（Native Forest by Native Trees)。该方法在日本，马来西亚，巴西和中国等国家，用于热带雨林，常绿阔叶林，落叶在林的恢复，已经有近600个成功的例子。山东的森林覆盖率低，森林恢复了造林难度大，宫胁的森林重建法对于山东的森林植被恢复和重建将是很有借鉴和帮助的。     

Temperature sensitivity of soil CO2 production in a tropical hill evergreen forest in northern Thailand

Tropical forests, like boreal forests, are considered key ecosystems with regard to climate change. The temperature sensitivity of soil CO₂ production in tropical forests is unclear, especially in eastern Asia, because of a lack of data. The year-round variation in temperature is very small in tropical forests such that it is difficult to evaluate the temperature sensitivity of soil CO₂ production using field observations, unlike the conditions that occur in temperate and boreal forests. This study examined the temperature sensitivity of soil CO₂ production in the tropical hill evergreen forest that covers northern Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar; this forest has small temperature seasonality. Using an undisturbed soil sample (0.2 m diameter, 0.4 m long), CO₂ production rates were measured at three different temperatures. The CO₂ production (SR, mg CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹) increased exponentially with temperature (T, °C); the fitted curve was SR = 0.023 e^0.077T, with Q₁₀ = 2.2. Although still limited, our result supports the possibility that even a small increase in the temperature of this region might accelerate carbon release because of the exponential sensitivity and high average temperature.     

"宫胁生态造林法"在上海外环环城绿带建设中的应用

<正>"宫肋生态造林法"具有建设成本低、后期管护少等优点,可以成为环城绿带建设的可选模式之一。目前,"宫胁生态造林法"已在世界各地被广泛应用,在我国北京、青岛、宁波、马鞍山、上海浦东等地,也成功地用于荒山植被恢复、高速公路绿带建设以及城市绿化建设。 "宫胁生态造林法"的理论基础是潜在植被理论和 理论,它提倡应用顶级群落的组成种采用容器育苗等"模拟自然"的手法和技术,通     

People,trees and projects: a review of CARE's activities in West Africa

CARE, in collaboration with a range of government agencies, has been active for over 15 years in agriculture, agroforestry and natural resource management projects in West Africa. Many of these projects evolved from emergency food distribution activities during the drought years of the 1970s and 80s. A number of valuable lessons are now emerging, particularly in relation to agricultural and agroforestry activities in the Sahelo-Sudanian and Sahelian zones. In the context of CARE's orientation and capabilities as a non-governmental development agency, these lessons are used to construct a framework for prioritizing future agriculture and natural resource management activities in the region.     

泰国清迈园林植物的种类及其应用

实地调查了清迈周边7个具有代表性的园林绿地,初步查明清迈常用于园林绿化的植物有213种（包括变种、品种、栽培种）,隶属于66科149属,灌木、草本占优势,落叶和针叶树种较少,植物分布以热带成分为主。文章分析和讨论该市园林植物的区系特点及其在城市绿化中的应用和配置特色。     

Practice and Use of Tree Species in Urban Forestry in Thailand

1 INTRODUCTIONUrban forestry can be viewed as a specialized branchof forestry, which deals with the science and art ofplanting, implementing the greenery in and around urbanand populated area. It includes tree planting in temples,offices, schools, hospitals, homesteads, highways orroads between towns or cities as well as public parksand recreational parks so that it contributes directlyand indirectly to the physical, physiological, sociologicaland economic well being of the communitiesconc…     

Simultaneous prediction of the development of loblolly pine and woody competitors in young plantations

A system for examining the effects of hardwood density and cover of herbaceous components on mean size in newly established loblolly pine plantations was developed using a site preparation study located in the piedmont province of Georgia (USA). Multispecies density models were derived to predict the sum of crown heights for eight important hardwood species using both the current or age 1 number of rootstocks and herbaceous vegetation to account for intra- and interspecific effects. The predicted sums of crown heights for the woody species were then used as predictors of mean height, diameter, and volume for loblolly pine. A seemingly unrelated regression procedure was used to compensate for correlations in error components within each system of equations that result from using predicted crown heights as regressor variables. The effects of varying sweetgum density and andropogon cover on the inter-related components of the systems based on current and age 1 competition were examined for mean height and mean diameter of the planted loblolly pines. The cumulative impacts of associated vegetation on loblolly pine growth and the relative sensitivity of height and diameter to competing vegetation were demonstrated.     

泰国的科教兴林战略

以50年来泰国林业呈马鞍形曲线发展的历史，从较宽的学术视野及战略上总结和分析了支撑泰国林业和国家的社会、经济、资源、环境可持续发展的人才战略、示范战略、人本战略、保护战略和替代战略及其实质。     

Discula quercina as a possible causal agent of dieback on oak trees in Iran

During spring and summer of 2016, dieback symptoms including blights of leaves, twigs, and acorns were observed on current year shoots of Quercus infectoria in the Zagros oak forests of Iran. The fungus isolated from damaged tissues was identified as Discula quercina based on both morphological characteristics and ITS sequencing. To fulfil the Koch's postulates, a representative isolate was inoculated onto shoots of Q. infectoria and Quercus libani in both laboratory and forest conditions. Responses of the two oak species to inoculation with D. quercina were examined under laboratory and forest conditions in a completely randomized experiment. Discula quercina was clearly involved in oak dieback, and Q. infectoria was more susceptible than Q. libani to damage by the pathogen. This is the first record of the occurrence and pathogenicity of the fungus Discula quercina on Quercus infectoria. The fungus is considered as an emerging pathogen on oak trees in Zagros forests in Iran. Furthermore, the pathogenicity of the Discula quercina on Q. libani under laboratory and forest conditions increases the potential importance of this pathogen in Zagros forests.