A multi-phasic approach reveals that apple replant disease is caused by multiple biological agents, with some agents acting synergistically

Apple replant disease (ARD) has been reported from all major fruit-growing regions of the world, and is often caused by a consortium of biological agents. The aim of this study was to investigate the etiology of ARD in South Africa in six orchard soils, using a multiphasic approach under glasshouse conditions. This approach first involved determining the ARD status of the soils by monitoring apple seedling growth responses in non-treated soil versus growth in pasteurized soil, as well as in 15% non-treated soil that was diluted into pasteurized soil. Subsequently, the potential for specific organisms to function as causal agents of ARD was investigated using (i) biocide applications, (ii) quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) analyses of ARD ‘marker’ microbes (Pythium irregulare, Pythium sylvaticum, Pythium ultimum, Pythium vexans, Rhizoctonia solani AG-5 and the genera Cylindrocarpon and Phytophthora), (iii) nematode analyses, (iv) isolation of actinomycetes and (v) pathogenicity testing of actinomycetes individually, and when co-inoculated with P. irregulare or Cylindrocarpon macrodidymum. The analyses showed that the soils could be grouped into low, moderate and severe ARD soils, with each group containing two soils. Several lines of evidence suggested that actinomycetes are not involved in ARD in South Africa. Multiple biological agents were determined to contribute to ARD including (i) oomycetes (Phytophthora and Pythium) that are important based upon their widespread occurrence, and the fact that metalaxyl application improved seedling growth in four soils (ii) the genus Cylindrocarpon that was also widespread, and for which a synergistic interaction with P. irregulare was demonstrated and (iii) occasionally parasitic nematodes, mainly Pratylenchus penetrans, Pratylenchus scribneri and Pratylenchus delattrei, since fenamiphos application improved seedling growth in two orchards. qPCR analyses of the ARD marker microbes showed that R. solani AG-5 is absent from South African orchards, and that P. ultimum is widespread, even though the latter species could not be detected in previous isolation studies. The other marker microbes were also widespread, with the exception of P. sylvaticum. qPCR quantification of the marker microbes could not be correlated with the severity of ARD in any manner. qPCR analyses did, however, show that possible root pruning pathogens such as P. irregulare, P. sylvaticum and P. ultimum had much lower DNA concentrations in seedling roots than P. vexans and the genera Cylindrocarpon and Phytophthora.     

冻融对老龄苹果园土壤微生物数量及酶活性的影响

以山东蒙阴、莱州和栖霞3地老龄苹果园土壤为材料,分别在冬前和冬后采集0~30 cm(上层)与30~60 cm(下层)土层土样,探讨了冻融作用对老龄苹果园土壤微生物数量和酶活性的影响。结果显示:3地苹果园0~30 cm土层各理化性状均显著高于30~60 cm土层,其中速效钾含量差异最显著;冻融处理后,3地上下层土壤细菌、真菌和放线菌数量均显著性降低,且上层土壤降低最显著,其中蒙阴苹果园上层土壤细菌、真菌和放线菌分别降低了40.6%、43.6%和55.7%,3地上下层土壤细菌/真菌比值显著提高、尖孢镰孢菌基因拷贝数大幅下降;冻融处理后,3地上下层土壤脲酶、磷酸酶和蔗糖酶活性均有所降低,且表现出显著性差异,但三地上下层土壤CEC变化趋势不同,其中蒙阴苹果园上层CEC降低了41.7%,下层CEC提高了19.2%,栖霞苹果园则相反。综上,3地老龄苹果园土壤经过冻融处理后,显著降低了上下层土壤微生物数量,显著提高了上下层土壤细菌/真菌比值,优化了土壤微生物群落结构,有利于缓解苹果园连作障碍。     

Peach seedling growth in replant and non-replant soils after inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

The effect of pre-inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on post-transplant growth of peach seedlings in replant and non-replant soils was studied for two successive seasons. Seedlings raised in sterile media and pre-inoculated with soil-based Gigaspora margarita inoculum were transplanted in replant and non-replant field soils alongside non-inoculated controls. Pre-inoculated seedlings transplanted in non-replant soils showed greater initial growth in the first year. Plant height, and lateral shoot length and number was highest in non-replant soils irrespective of mycorrhizal pre-inoculation. Similarly, biomass yield was significantly higher in seedlings in non-replant soils, though there were no significant differences in shoot/root ratios, and in tissue mineral content between and within treatments. Seedling infection by indigenous AMF was high in both replant and non-replant soils, and even non-inoculated seedlings recorded high infection levels after the first season. Generally, mycorrhizal activity was lower, and spore populations higher in replant soils, while the opposite was true in non-replant soils. It seems that soil sickness has a negative impact on plant metabolism and limits the capacity of the plant host to support the mycorrhizal symbiosis.     

蚓粪减轻苹果砧木平邑甜茶幼苗连作障碍的土壤生物学机制

【目的】有害真菌数量的增加是造成苹果连作障碍的主要原因。本文探讨了蚓粪对苹果连作障碍的防控效果以及作用机理。【方法】以苹果常用砧木平邑甜茶 (Malus hupeheusis Rehd.) 为试材进行了盆栽试验,供试土壤为棕壤,取自山东省泰安市25年的红富士老果园。以连作土壤为对照 (CK),设灭菌连作土壤 (TM)、连作土壤施用蚓粪 (YF)、连作土壤施用灭菌蚓粪 (MYF) 共4个处理。幼苗生长一年后,测定平邑甜茶生物量、根系相关指标,分析土壤可培养微生物类群及土壤酶活性。【结果】与连作土壤CK相比,蚓粪(YF)和灭菌蚓粪 (MYF) 处理的平邑甜茶植株干重显著提高了351.1%和348.2%;蚓粪处理 (YF) 和灭菌蚓粪 (MYF) 处理都显著促进了平邑甜茶植株根系的生长,提高了植株根系的抗氧化酶活性和根系呼吸速率,两个处理间无明显差异;YF处理土壤细菌、放线菌数量分别增加了107.8%和97.7%,真菌数量减少了17.1%。实时荧光定量PCR结果显示,施入蚓粪后 (YF) 连作土壤中尖孢镰刀菌的数量下降了51.0%,MYF处理的尖孢镰刀菌数量降低了57.6%,YF和MYF两个处理间无显著差异;YF处理的土壤磷酸酶、脲酶、蔗糖酶和过氧化氢酶活性分别比CK提高了97.9%、540.9%、213.1%和109.4%。【结论】在连作土壤上添加蚓粪或灭菌蚓粪,均可显著增加土壤中细菌和放线菌数量,降低真菌特别是尖孢镰刀菌数量,改善连作土壤微生物环境,进而减轻苹果连作障碍带来的危害,提高土壤酶活性,促进植株根系健康生长,提高平邑甜茶幼苗的生物量。     

蚯蚓磨浆发酵产物减轻苹果连作障碍的机制

[目的]探究蚯蚓磨浆发酵产物防控苹果连作障碍的可行性.[方法]蚯蚓(Eisenia foetida)用湿法磨碎后,加入枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)和黑曲霉菌(Aspergillus niger)发酵,发酵物用于试验.盆栽试验土壤采自27年龄的苹果园,供试作物为平邑甜茶幼苗.蚯蚓发酵物施入土壤,在苹...     

Non-streptomycete actinomycetes as biocontrol agents of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens and as plant growth promoters

Among soil microorganisms, bacteria and fungi and to a lesser extent actinomycetes, have received considerable attention as biocontrol agents of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens and as plant growth promoters. Within actinomycetes, Streptomyces spp. have been investigated predominantly, mainly because of their dominance on, and the ease of isolation from, dilution plates and because of the commercial interest shown on the antibiotics produced by certain Streptomyces spp. Many of non-streptomycete actinomycetes (NSA) taxa are therefore rarely reported in literature dealing with routine isolations of biocontrol agents and/or plant growth promoters from plant and soil. It is clear that special isolation methods need to be employed in routine isolations to selectively isolate NSA. Some interesting information exists, albeit in relatively few reports compared to that on other microorganisms, on the biological activities of NSA, especially in relation to their mechanisms of action in the biological control of soil-borne fungal plant pathogens and plant growth promotion. This review presents an overview of this information and seeks to encourage further investigations into what may be considered a relatively unexplored area of research. Certain soil environmental factors, especially in horticultural systems, could be manipulated to render the soil conducive for the biological activities of NSA. A variety of NSA isolated by selective methods have not only shown to be rhizosphere competent but also adapted for an endophytic life in root cortices. Some of the NSA, including endophytic strains that have shown potential to suppress soil-borne fungal plant pathogens, are able to employ one or more mechanisms of antagonism including antibiosis, hyperparasitism and the production of cell-wall degrading enzymes. Strains of NSA promote plant growth by producing plant growth regulators. Enhancement of plant growth by the antagonists are considered to help the host by producing compensatory roots that mask the impact of root diseases.     

Mycorrhizas Mitigate Soil Replant Disease of Peach Through Regulating Root Exudates,Soil Microbial Population,and Soil Aggregate Stability

Soil replant disease is the main bottleneck interfering with tree growth of peach in soils with poor traits. A potted study was conducted to evaluate the effects of inoculation with an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), Acauloapora scrobiculata, on plant growth, mineral nutrients, soil enzyme activities, soil microbial populations, and root exudate compositions of peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch) seedlings grown in replant soil and non-replant soil. After 15 weeks in AMF inoculation, replant soil heavily inhibited root mycorrhizal colonization. In replant soil, AMF inoculation significantly increased shoot biomass and root phosphorus, potassium, calcium, copper, zinc, iron, and boron concentrations. Mycorrhizal peach seedlings showed a higher number of soil bacteria and total microbes but a lower number of soil fungi under replant conditions, as well higher soil urease and acid phosphatase activity and lower soil sucrase and catalase activity. Greater soil aggregate stability was observed in mycorrhiza-inoculated replant soil than in non-mycorrhizal soil due to the increase of water-stable aggregates in 2–4 mm and 1–2 mm size. In addition, a total of 92 substances were identified in root exudates, and the mycorrhizosphere had considerably more root exudate compositions. AMF inoculation had a significantly inhibitive effect on the relative abundance of allelochemical substances, including benzoic acid, benzaldehyde, diisooctyl phthalate, phenols, and sterols, while there was an increase in diphenyl-ethanedione and à-(benzoyloxy)-benzeneacetonitrile in replanted peach. It was concluded that AMF inoculation could partly mitigate soil replant disease of peach through modulating soil microbe balance, improving soil aggregate stability, and changing root exudate compositions.     

Long-term suppression of Pythium abappressorium induced by Brassica juncea seed meal amendment is biologically mediated

Evidence indicates that seed meal (SM) of Brassica juncea is an effective biofumigant against Pythium spp., an important biological component contributing to apple replant disease. However, the ability of this seed meal to provide disease control even after termination of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) emission suggested that unidentified mechanisms are also involved in suppression of certain pathogens in B. juncea SM-amended soil. When soils were infested with Pythium abappressorium 2–12 weeks after SM was applied, disease suppression was consistently observed in SM-treated soil. Bagging of soil for the initial 48 h after SM application, to simulate tarping of soil in the field, enhanced disease control. Application of SM either as coarse or fine particles produced similar effects on disease suppression. B. juncea SM amendment also suppressed the proliferation of P. abappressorium observed in Brassica napus SM-treated soils at a time point well after AITC emission from soils was no longer detected. Pasteurization of SM-amended soil eliminated soil suppressiveness toward this pathogen, demonstrating the important contribution of the soil microbiota to the disease control attained in AITC evacuated soil. Terminal-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism profiles obtained for 18S rDNA from fungal communities associated with SM-amended and non-amended soil demonstrated distinct variation in terms of composition. Visible changes in fungal community composition in SM-treated soils were also observed, and analyses indicated the preferential proliferation of Trichoderma spp. in SM-treated soils. These findings suggest that modification of the resident fungal community in SM-amended soil may contribute to the observed long-term suppressiveness of B. juncea SM-amended soils toward apple root infection by P. abappressorium.     

Brassica napus seed meal soil amendment modifies microbial community structure, nitric oxide production and incidence of Rhizoctonia root rot

A low glucosinolate content (21.8 μmol g⁻¹) Brassica napus seed meal (RSM) applied to orchard soils altered communities of both pathogenic and saprophytic soil micro-organisms. RSM amendment reduced infection by native and introduced isolates of Rhizoctonia spp. and recovery of Pratylenchus spp. from apple roots. Root infection by Rhizoctonia solani AG-5 was also suppressed in split-root assays where a portion of the root system was cultivated in RSM-amended soils and the remainder grown in the presence of the pathogen but lacking RSM. R. solani hyphal growth was not inhibited by RSM amendment. Suppression of Pratylenchus was attained to an equivalent extent by amending soils with either RSM or soybean meal (SM) when applied to provide a similar N content. Thus, glucosinolate hydrolysis products did not appear to have a significant role in the suppression of Rhizoctonia spp. or Pratylenchus spp. obtained via RSM amendment. RSM amendment elevated populations of Pythium spp. and of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria that release nitric oxide but suppressed fluorescent pseudomonad numbers. Streptomyces spp. soil populations increased significantly in response to RSM but not SM amendment. The vast majority of Streptomyces spp. recovered from the apple rhizosphere produced nitric oxide and possessed a nitric oxide synthase homolog. We propose that transformations in the bacterial community structure are associated with the observed control of Rhizoctonia root rot, with NO production by soil bacteria potentially having a role in the induction of plant systemic resistance.     

生物炭配施有机肥可改善土壤环境并减轻苹果连作障碍

【目的】 苹果连作障碍是制约苹果产业可持续发展的重要因素之一。研究生物炭复合有机肥混合处理对连作条件下平邑甜茶幼苗生物量、根系呼吸速率、根系指标和土壤环境的影响,探讨生物炭复合有机肥对苹果连作障碍的防控效果,为老果园改造提供理论依据。 【方法】 盆栽条件下,以苹果常用砧木—平邑甜茶为试材,设计了连作土壤 (CK)、连作土用溴甲烷熏蒸处理 (F)、连作土 + 2%有机肥 (OF)、连作土 + 2%生物炭 (B)、连作土 + 2%有机肥 + 2%生物炭 (BOF) 5个处理。采用常规方法测定了不同处理对平邑甜茶幼苗生物量、根系呼吸速率、根系指标及土壤酶活性的影响,用Illumina MiSeq 2 x 300 bp平台和实时荧光定量PCR测定了不同处理土壤中真菌群落结构和尖孢镰刀菌数量。 【结果】 生物炭、有机肥以及二者复合施用,均可提高平邑甜茶幼苗的生物量,三种处理的根系呼吸速率分别是对照的1.3、1.2和1.5倍;经生物炭、有机肥或二者复合处理后,幼苗总根长、根体积以及表面积虽然不如F处理的效果好,但是也明显高于连作土对照,其中BOF处理效果最好,分别是对照的2.3、4.8和3.4倍;三种处理还可增强土壤酶活性,其中以生物炭复合有机肥效果最佳,土壤脲酶、蔗糖酶和磷酸酶活性分别为对照的2.1、2.9和2.9倍;三种处理不同程度地改善了连作土壤真菌群落结构,生物炭复合有机肥对土壤真菌丰富度和多样性的提高效果最为显著,与其他三个处理差别明显;溴甲烷灭菌、生物炭配施有机肥处理土壤中尖孢镰刀菌基因拷贝数均显著低于连作土,说明连作土壤中以尖孢镰刀菌为主的有害真菌数量明显减少。 【结论】 施用生物炭复合有机肥相比于单施生物炭或者有机肥,能更好地提高连作条件下平邑甜茶幼苗的生长发育,增强土壤酶活性,二者配施明显优化了土壤真菌群落结构,降低了土壤中尖孢镰刀菌基因拷贝数。因此,施用生物炭复合有机肥这一综合措施能更好地防控苹果连作障碍。      

Wheat plants invest more in mycorrhizae and receive more benefits from them under adverse than favorable soil conditions

Soil chemistry and biota heavily influence crop plant growth and mineral nutrition. The stress-severity and optimal resource allocation hypotheses predict mutualistic symbiotic benefits to increase with the degree of metabolic imbalance and environmental stress. Using two cross-factorial pot experiments with the same biologically active calcareous soil, one time highly saline and nutrient-deficient, and the other time partially desalinated and amended with mineral soil fertilizer, we explored whether these general predictions hold true for zinc (Zn) nutrition of bread wheat in mycorrhizal symbiosis. Increased arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal root colonization positively correlated with plant Zn nutrition, but only when plants were impaired in growth due to salinity and nutrient-deficiency; this was particularly so in a cultivar-responsive to application of mineral Zn fertilizer. Evidence for direct involvement of AM fungi were positive correlations between Zn uptake from soil and frequency of fungal symbiotic nutrient exchange organelles, as well as the quantitative abundance of AM fungi of the genera Funneliformis and Rhizophagus, but not Claroideoglomus. Combined partial soil desalination and fertilization swapped the dominance ranking from Claroideoglomus spp. to Funneliformis spp. Positive growth, nitrogen, and Zn uptake responses to mycorrhization were contingent on moderate soil fertilization with ZnSO₄. In agreement with the predictions of the stress-severity and optimal resource allocation hypotheses, plants limited in growth due to chemically adverse soil conditions invested relatively more into AM fungi, as evident from heavier root colonization, and took up relatively more Zn and nitrogen in response to mycorrhization, than better growing and less mycorrhized plants. It thus appears that crop plant cultivar-dependent mycorrhization and Zn fertilizer-responsiveness may reinforce each other, provided that there is bioavailable Zn in soil and plant growth is impaired by suboptimal chemical soil conditions.     

普通青霉D12和罗伊氏乳杆菌发酵产物促进平邑甜茶幼苗生长和连作土壤生物环境改善

[目的]研究普通青霉D12和罗伊氏乳杆菌及其混合发酵产物对苹果幼苗生长及土壤环境的影响,为缓解苹果连作障碍提供绿色生防措施.[方法]以32年苹果园土和平邑甜茶幼苗为试材进行盆栽试验.普通青霉D12?(R1)和罗伊氏乳杆菌(R2)活化后制成活菌数分别≥2×109?CFU/mL和?≥3×109?CFU/mL的发酵产物.盆栽...     

过硫酸铵配施不同形态木霉菌肥缓解苹果连作障碍

[目的]研究肥料形态及土壤条件对木霉菌肥改善苹果土壤连作障碍的影响,以期为缓解苹果连作障碍提供有效的理论依据和技术支持.[方法]试验以苹果砧木—平邑甜茶(Malus hupehensis Rehd.)幼苗为试材,设置4个处理:连作土(CK)、过硫酸铵处理(T1)、过硫酸铵加颗粒状木霉菌肥(T2)、过硫酸铵加粉末状木霉菌...     

Assessment of fungal communities in soil and tomato roots subjected to diverse land and crop management systems

Effects of diverse agricultural land management practices on soil and on root colonizing fungal communities were determined through a PCR-based molecular method and a culture-dependent method, respectively, in a field location with uniform soil type. Initiated in July 2000, the management systems were: conventional tomato production, frequent tillage (disk fallow), undisturbed weed fallow, bahiagrass pasture (Paspalum notatum var. notatum ‘Argentine’), and an organically managed system including cover crops and annual applications of poultry manure and urban plant debris. Culture-dependent colony counting was used to identify and enumerate communities of root colonizing fungi and length heterogeneity polymerase chain reaction (LH-PCR) analysis of internal transcribed spacer-1 (ITS-1) profiles to characterize phylotypes in soil fungal communities. Three years after initiation of land management treatments and midway through tomato cultivation, both methods detected a high degree of similarity in fungal community composition between weed fallow and bahiagrass plots. Soil fungal communities in organically managed plots were similar to each other and distinct from communities in other land management systems while the composition of root colonizing fungal communities in organic plots was divergent. The results demonstrate that the soil fungal communities and root colonizing fungal communities were affected differently depending on land and crop management practices. Fusarium oxysporum was a dominant species in all soil and root colonizing fungal communities except those subjected to organic management practices.     

Soil fumigation and compost amendment alter soil microbial community composition but do not improve tree growth or yield in an apple replant site

Apple replant disease (ARD) is a disease complex that reduces survival, growth and yield of replanted trees, and is often encountered in establishing new orchards on old sites. Methyl bromide (MB) has been the fumigant used most widely to control ARD, but alternatives to MB and cultural methods of control are needed. In this experiment, we evaluated the response of soil microbial communities and tree growth and yield to three pre-plant soil treatments (compost amendment, soil treatment with a broad-spectrum fumigant, and untreated controls), and use of five clonal rootstock genotypes (M.7, M.26, CG.6210, G.30 and G.16), in an apple replant site in Ithaca, New York. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)—denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis was used to assess changes in the community composition of bacteria and fungi in the bulk soil 8, 10, 18 and 22 months after trees were replanted. PCR-DGGE was also used to compare the community composition of bacteria, fungi and pseudomonads in untreated rhizosphere soil of the five rootstock genotypes 31 months after planting. Tree caliper and extension growth were measured annually in November from 2002 to 2004. Apple yield data were recorded in 2004, the first fruiting year after planting. Trees on CG.6210 rootstocks had the most growth and highest yield, while trees on M.26 rootstocks had the least growth and lowest yield. Tree growth and yield were not affected by pre-plant soil treatment except for lateral extension growth, which was longer in trees growing in compost-treated soil in 2003 as compared to those in the fumigation treatment. Bulk soil bacterial PCR-DGGE fingerprints differed strongly among the different soil treatments 1 year after their application, with the fingerprints derived from each pre-plant soil treatment clustering separately in a hierarchical cluster analysis. However, the differences in bacterial communities between the soil treatments diminished during the second year after planting. Soil fungal communities converged more rapidly than bacterial communities, with no discernable pattern related to pre-plant soil treatments 10 months after replanting. Changes in bulk soil bacterial and fungal communities in response to soil treatments had no obvious correlation with tree performance. On the other hand, rootstock genotypes modified their rhizosphere environments which differed significantly in their bacterial, pseudomonad, fungal and oomycete communities. Cluster analysis of PCR-DGGE fingerprints of fungal and pseudomonad rhizosphere community DNA revealed two distinct clusters. For both analyses, soil sampled from the rhizosphere of the two higher yielding rootstock genotypes clustered together, while the lower yielding rootstock genotypes also clustered together. These results suggest that the fungal and pseudomonad communities that have developed in the rhizosphere of the different rootstock genotypes may be one factor influencing tree growth and yield at this apple replant site.     

Dual inoculation of pretransplant stage Oryza sativa L. plants with indigenous vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and fluorescent Pseudomonas spp.

Summary This study examined the response of rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants at the pretransplant/nursery stage to inoculation with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi and fluorescent Pseudomonas spp., singly or in combination. The VAM fungi and fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. were isolated from the rhizosphere of rice plants. In the plants grown in soil inoculated with fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. alone, I found increases in shoot growth, and in root length and fine roots, and decreases in root growth, and P and N concentrations. In contrast, in the plants colonized by VAM fungi alone, the results were the reverse of those of the pseudomonad treatment. Dual inoculation of soil with VAM fungi and fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. yielded plants with the highest biomass and nutrient acquisition. In contrast, the plants of the control treatment had the lowest biomass and nutrient levels. The dual-inoculated plants had intermediate root and specific root lengths. The precentages of mycorrhizal colonization and colonized root lengths were significantly lower in the dual-inoculated treatment than the VAM fungal treatment. Inoculation of plants with fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. suppressed VAM fungal colonization and apparently reduced photosynthate loss to the mycorrhizal associates, which led to greater biomass and nutrient levels in dual-inoculated plants compared with plants inoculated with VAM fungi alone. Dual inoculation of seedlings with fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. and VAM fungi may be preferable to inoculation with VAM alone and may contribute to the successful establishment of these plants in the field.     

Effects of soil application of olive mill wastewaters on the structure and function of the community of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Recycling of olive mill wastewaters (OMW) into agricultural soils is a controversial issue since benefits to soil fertility should counterbalance potential short-term toxicity effects. We investigated the short-term effects of OMW on the soil-plant system, regarding the diversity, structure and root colonization capacity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and the respective growth response of Vicia faba L, commonly used as green manure in olive-tree plantations. A compartmentalized pot system was used that allowed the establishment of an AM fungal community in one compartment (feeder) and the application of three OMW dose levels in an adjacent second compartment (receiver). At 0, 10, and 30 days after OMW treatment (DAT), V. faba pre-germinated seeds were seeded in the receiver compartment. At harvest, shoot and root dry weights, AM fungal root colonization, soil hyphal length and P availability were recorded in the receiver compartment. In addition, OMW effects on AM fungal diversity in plant roots were studied by DGGE. A transient effect of OMW application was observed; plant growth and AM fungal colonization were initially inhibited, whereas soil hyphal length was stimulated, but in most cases differences were absent when seeding was performed 30 DAT. Similarly, changes induced in the structure of the root AM fungal community were of transient nature. Cloning and sequencing of all the major DGGE bands showed that roots were colonized by Glomus spp. The transient effects of OMW on the structure and function of AM fungi could be attributed to OMW-derived phytoxicity to V. faba plants or to an indirect effect via alteration of soil nutritional status. The high OMW dose significantly increased soil P availability in the presence of AM fungi, suggesting efficient involvement of AM fungi in organic-P minerilization. Overall our results indicate that soil application of OMW would cause transient changes in the AM fungal colonization of V. faba plants, which, would not impair their long-term plant growth promoting ability.     

Legumes as dry season fallow in upland rice-based systems of West Africa

Declining fallow length in traditional upland rice-based cropping systems in West Africa results in a significant yield reduction due mainly to increased weed pressure and declining soil fertility. Promising cropping system alternatives include the use of weed-suppressing legumes as short duration fallows. N accumulation, N derived from the atmosphere (Ndfa), weed suppression, and the effects on rice yield were evaluated in 50 legumes, grown at four sites in Côte d'Ivoire with contrasting climate, soils, and rice production systems. The sites were located in the derived and the Guinea savanna and in the bimodal and the monomodal rainfall forest zones. Legume and weed biomass during the fallow were determined at bimonthly intervals. Percent Ndfa by biological N fixation was determined by ¹⁵N natural abundance. Fallow vegetation was cleared and rice seeded according to the practice of local farmers and the cropping calendar. Weed biomass and species composition were monitored at monthly intervals. Legume fallows appear to offer the potential to sustain rice yields under intensified cropping. Biomass was in most instances significantly greater in the legume fallow than in the "weedy" fallow control, and several legume species suppressed weed growth. N accumulation by legumes varied between 1–270?kg N ha^–1 with 30–90%?Ndfa. Across sites, Mucuna spp., Canavalia spp., and Stylosanthes guianensis showed consistently high N accumulation. Grain yields of rice which had been preceded by a legume fallow were on average 0.2?Mg ha^–1 or about 30% greater than that preceded by a natural weedy fallow control. At the savanna sites where fallow vegetation was incorporated, Mucuna spp. and Canavalia ensiformis significantly increased rice yield. In the bimodal forest zone, the highest rice yield and lowest weed biomass were obtained with Crotalaria anagyroides. In general, the effects of legume fallows on rice yield were most significant in environments with favourable soil and hydrological conditions.     

三种菌肥对连作平邑甜茶根系生长和土壤真菌群落多样性的促进效应

  【目的】  以苹果常用砧木平邑甜茶 (Malus hupehensis Rehd.) 幼苗为试材,盆栽条件下研究圆弧青霉D12、哈茨木霉、草酸青霉A1等对根系形态及土壤真菌的影响,为生物防控苹果连作障碍提供理论依据。  【方法】  试验材料为平邑甜茶实生苗,连作土壤采自山东省泰安市满庄滩清湾31年生老苹果园,设置5个处理:连作土 (CK1)、载体基质 (CK2)、施用圆弧青霉D12菌肥处理 (T1)、施用哈茨木霉菌肥处理 (T2)、施用草酸青霉A1菌肥处理 (T3),菌肥加入量为连作土壤质量的1.00%,移栽4个月后测定根系呼吸速率、根系保护酶、土壤真菌多样性等指标。  【结果】  与CK1相比,T1、T2、T3均能够促进植株根系鲜重增加和根系呼吸速率提高,显著提高根系保护酶活性,降低MDA含量;T2、T3效果较好,其SOD活性分别增加了45.46%、46.82%、POD活性分别增加了120.06%、108.73%,CAT活性分别增加了84.15%、87.82%。与CK1 相比,T1、T2、T3土壤中镰孢菌属的相对丰度分别降低了41.14%、49.34%、79.10%,而青霉属和木霉属分别增加了227.18%、222.91%、890.94%和76.55%、462.71%、213.56%,真菌多样性指数 (Ace指数、Chao指数、Shan指数) 均明显提高,Simpson指数则有所下降。  【结论】  连作土壤中施用圆弧青霉D12、哈茨木霉、草酸青霉A1均可提高根系保护酶活性和根系活力,降低土壤中镰孢菌丰度,其中哈茨木霉和草酸青霉A1效果较好,可用于苹果连作障碍的防控。     

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria alter rooting patterns and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonization of field-grown spring wheat

The impact of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) inoculants on the growth, yield and interactions of spring wheat with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) was assessed in field studies. The pseudomonad inoculants P. cepacia R55, R85, P. aeruginosa R80, P. fluorescens R92 and P. putida R104, which enhance growth and yield of winter wheat, were applied at a rate of ca. 10⁷–10⁸ cfu seed^-1 and plots established on pea stubble or summer fallow at two different sites in Saskatchewan. Plant shoot and root biomass, yield and AMF colonization were determined at four intervals. Plant growth responses were variable and dependent on the inoculant strain, harvest date and growth parameter evaluated. Significant increases or decreases were measured at different intervals but these were usually transient and final seed yield was not significantly affected. Harvest index was consistently increased by all pseudomonad inoculants; responses to strain R55 and R104 were significant. Root biomass to 60 cm depth was not significantly affected by inoculants except strain R104, which significantly reduced root dry weight. However, root distribution, root length and AMF colonization of roots within the soil profile to 60 cm were significantly altered by inoculants. Most of these responses were reductions in the assessed parameter and occurred at depths below 15 cm; however, strains R85 and R92 significantly increased root dry weight in the 0- to 15-cm zone. These results indicate that some PGPR inoculants may adversely affect mutualistic associations between plants and indigenous soil microorganisms, and suggest a possible reason as to why spring wheat growth was not consistently enhanced by these pseudomonad PGPR.