Water stress effects on root exudation by lodgepole pine

Individual roots of a 7-year-old lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud) were subjected to water potentials of 0, ?200 or ?400 kPa using PEG 4000 as the osmotic agent. Root exudation of photoassimilated ¹⁴CO₂ was followed over time. Although roots subjected to a water potential of ?400 kPa exuded more ¹⁴C-labeled material than roots at either 0 or ?200 kPa, more labeled material was also translocated to these roots, suggesting an attempt to alleviate the water stress. Some roots exuded over 80% of the total ¹⁴C-activity which moved to the roots in 10 days. Although exudation did not appear to be influenced by mycorrhizal infection, mother roots exuded a greater proportion of ¹⁴C-labeled assimilates than lateral roots.     

接种AM真菌对采煤沉陷区文冠果生长及土壤特性的影响

煤炭井工开采往往造成地表塌陷,导致了土壤养分贫瘠和水分缺乏,土壤沙化和水土流失,从而限制了当地矿区植被生长,而丛枝菌根真菌(arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi,AM真菌)对植被生长有促进作用。以文冠果为宿主植物,采用野外原位监测和室内分析方法,研究了未接种和接种丛枝菌根真菌对采煤沉陷区复垦植物文冠果生长和土壤特性的影响。结果表明:与未接种AM真菌处理相比,接种AM真菌显著提高了文冠果根系菌根侵染率和土壤根外菌丝密度,7月接种AM真菌文冠果的株高、冠幅和地径提高了31.89%,23.07%,9.89%。同时,9月接种AM真菌处理的根际土壤全氮、碱解氮和有机碳含量分别比对照组增加0.29g/kg、13.0mg/kg和1.4g/kg,接种AM真菌显著提高了根际土壤的含水率、总球囊霉素和易提取球囊霉素,而速效磷和速效钾的含量显著降低。相关分析结果表明,菌根侵染率、土壤根外菌丝密度与根际土壤理化性质之间存在协同反馈效应。因此,接种AM真菌促进了采煤沉陷区复垦植被文冠果的生长和土壤的改良,这对矿区水土保持、维持生态系统稳定性和持续性具有重要意义。     

Effect of osmotic potential on streptomycete growth,antibiotic production and antagonism to fungi

The growth of eighteen isolates of Streptomyces spp. on agars, the osmotic potentials of which were controlled by the addition of various solutes, showed that nine isolates were able to grow at ?100 bars and two of these grew at ?150 bars. This suggests that the water requirements of soil streptomycetes are almost as diverse as those of soil fungi. In general, linear growth and sporulation declined with decreasing osmotic potential, but one isolate grew optimally at potentials between ?5 and ?10 bars. Another isolate formed maximum amounts of a water-diffusible antibiotic per unit colony area at potentials between ?20 and ?35 bars. This appears to be the first report of osmotic potential influencing the production of antibiotic by Streptomyces. The increased antibiotic production at moderate potentials was associated with inhibition of Pythium ultimum, Rhizoctonia solani and a Curvularia sp. by the streptomycete at these potentials on osmotic agar plates. The possible ecological significance of this phenomenon in soil is discussed.     

Denitrification in the rhizosphere of plants with inherently different aerenchyma formation: Wheat (Triticum aestivum) and rice (Oryza sativa)

Summary Denitrification in the rhizosphere of wheat and rice was studied in relation to aerenchyma formation. Seedlings were grown in quartz silt amended with mineral nutrients at given bulk densities and water tensions. In adventitious wheat roots the formation of cortical lacunae was strongly dependent on soil aeration. Growing the wheat plants in dry (–20 kPa) and moist substrate (–2 kPa) established aerenchyma contents of 3% and 15%, respectively. Denitrification was measured after the introduction of equal moisture levels in the substrates of both treatments. The higher aerenchyma content of roots pregrown in the wetter substrate did not counteract denitrification in the rhizosphere which had doubled in this treatment. In contrast to the unspecific lysis of cortical cell walls, the well organized formation of aerenchyma in rice roots was independent of soil aeration. Root porosity averaged 14%. As in wheat, it was not related to denitrification. However, the level of denitrification per mg of root dry matter was about four times lower than that of wheat. The addition of decomposable organic matter (cellulose) to the substrate stimulated aerenchyma formation in rice and considerably increased denitrification. The results suggest that denitrification in the rhizosphere is independent of aerenchyma formation.     

Soil moisture affects the interaction between Gaeumannomyces graminis var. Tritici and antagonistic bacteria

Reduction in the soil moisture from a potential of ?10 to?108 kPa reduced the growth of Gaeumannomyces graminis. The antagonist Bacillus cereus only spread through the soil or sand at potentials between ?10 and ?60 kPa. The spread of B. pumilus was not affected by the water potential within the range tested. Both B. cereus and B. pumilus were less antagonistic in the drier sand and soil. When the bacteria and the fungus were grown together the maximum growth of the fungus occurred at those potentials when bacterial antagonism was reduced but the fungus was still able to grow.     

In situ dynamics of soil fungal communities under different genotypes of potato, including a genetically modified cultivar

Fungi are key to the functioning of soil ecosystems, and exhibit a range of interactions with plants. Given their close associations with plants, and importance in ecosystem functioning, soil-borne fungi have been proposed as potential biological indicators of disturbance and useful agents in monitoring strategies, including those following the introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops. Here we report on the impact of potato crop varieties, including a cultivar that was genetically modified for its starch quality, on the community composition of the main phyla of fungi in soils, i.e. Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and Glomeromycota in rhizosphere and bulk soil. Samples were collected at two field sites before sowing, at three growth stages during crop development and after the harvest of the plants, and the effects of field site, plant growth stage and plant cultivar (genotype) on fungal community composition assessed using three phylum-specific T-RFLP profiling strategies and multivariate statistical analysis (NMDS ordinations with ANOSIM test). In addition, fungal biomass, arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of roots and activities of extracellular fungal enzymes (laccases, Mn-peroxidases and cellulases) involved in degradation of lignocelluloses-rich organic matter were determined. Fungal community compositions, densities and activities were observed to differ significantly between the rhizosphere and bulk soil. The most important factors determining fungal community composition and functioning were plant growth stage for the rhizosphere communities and location and soil properties for the bulk soil communities. The basidiomycetes were the most numerous fungal group in the bulk soils and in the rhizosphere of young plants, with a shift toward greater ascomycete numbers in the rhizosphere at later growth stages. There were no detectable differences between the GM cultivar and its parental cultivar in terms of influence on fungal community structure of function. Fungal community structure and functioning of both GM- and parental cultivars fell within the range of other cultivars at most sampling moments.     

Wood biochar produces different rates of root growth and transpiration in two maize hybrids (Zea mays L.) under drought stress

This study investigated the effects of wood-derived biochar (BC) applied at 1% to a C-poor silty-loam soil in the drought-tolerant (D24) and in the drought-sensitive (P1921) Pioneer Hi-Bred maize hybrids in pot and field trials (NE Italy). D24 had better growth than P1921 under rain-fed conditions without irrigation and soil amendment. The addition of biochar increased root growth in D24 (+38% root area) and decreases it in P1921 (?9%) at the silking stage, while the fraction of finer roots (<250 µm diam.) was reduced in D24 and increased in P1921. This led both hybrids to maintain the maximum transpiration at a lower fraction of transpirable soil water (from 82% to 45% in D24, and from 46% to 22% in P1921). There were no significant variations in plant nutrient contents, productivity and in the protein and starch contents of the grains, whereas the lipid content was reduced by biochar, particularly in P1921 (2.6% vs. 3% DW, ?13%).

We conclude that biochar can be profitably used to enhance drought tolerance in maize, possibly due to improvements in the physicochemical characteristics and the water content of treated soils, although maximum benefits are expected in drought-tolerant hybrids through increased root elongation and transpiration.     

农村混合污水灌溉对小麦生长及其根际微环境的影响

以土柱模拟试验为基础,利用不同稀释倍数的农村混合污水(污水∶清水为1∶0,1∶1,0∶1)灌溉小麦,进而研究农村混合污水灌溉(WG)对小麦生长、根际土壤养分、酶活性和微生物多样性的影响。结果表明,污水含量的高低对小麦生长及根际土壤养分、酶活性和微生物多样性有一定的影响。与清水灌溉(CK)相比,WG处理后:(1)小麦株高、径粗、鲜重和干重均显著高于CK(P0.05),小麦叶片叶绿素a、叶绿素b和总叶绿素含量显著增加(P0.05);(2)小麦根际土壤除有机质含量增加16.42%外,pH、土壤全氮、全钾、全磷、速效磷、速效钾和碱解氮含量及综合肥力均降低(0.95%～16.79%),且速效钾含量降低较为显著(P0.05);(3)小麦根际土壤酸性磷酸酶、脲酶和转化酶活性均显著高于CK(P0.05),过氧化氢酶活性显著降低(P0.05);(4)由Shannon、Ace、Chao、Coverage、Simpson指数及细菌和真菌在genus水平上的微生物群落结构分布可知,小麦根际土壤细菌多样性降低,真菌多样性增加。同时,改变了小麦根际土壤细菌和真菌在genus水平上优势种的相对丰度,但细菌优势种的种类没有发生改变,真菌优势种的种类发生改变。研究结果可为示范区农村混合污水灌溉模式的研究提供有力的理论依据。     

Traffic-induced soil compaction during manure spreading in spring in South-East Norway

The objective of this study was to evaluate long-term effects of two tillage regimes (ploughing and minimum tillage) on the bearing capacity of a clay rich soil, by using two different slurry tankers (4.1 and 6.6 Mg wheel load) and contrasting wheeling frequencies (1 and 10 passes). The soil strength was assessed by laboratory measurements of the precompression stress (Pc) at ?6 kPa in topsoil (20 cm) and subsoil (40 and 60 cm) samples. Stress propagation, elastic and plastic deformation during wheeling were measured in the field with combined stress-state-transducer and displacement transducer system. Results presented in this study show that minimum tilled soil had 74% higher Pc than ploughed soil in the upper soil layer, whilst differences were less distinct in subsoil. Wheeling increased Pc at all soil depths. Compared to ploughing, higher strength in the upper layer of minimum tilled soil led on average to 60% and 48% reductions in the major principal stress with the use of the light and heavy slurry tanker, respectively. The extent of the major principal stress was dependent on the ground pressure in the topsoil. The first pass of a wheel caused the greatest damage in some cases, but all wheelings led to accumulative plastic deformation in both vertical and horizontal directions. Wheeling with high intensity would have exceeded Pc in all cases when soil was at a matric potential of ?6 kPa. The results show that soil water content is an important factor influencing bearing capacity. Drier soil (?100 kPa), in combination with minimum tillage, limited the occurrence of stresses exceeding Pc in the upper soil layer.     

Structural differences between bulk and rhizosphere soil

The physical characteristics of the soil at the root–soil interface are crucial because they determine both physical aspects of root function such as water and nutrient uptake and the microbial activity that is most relevant to root growth. Because of this we have studied how root activity modifies the structure and water retention characteristic of soil adjacent to the root for maize, wheat and barley. These plants were grown in pots for a 6‐week growth period, then the soil adjacent to the root (rhizosphere soil) and bulk soil aggregates were harvested. These soil aggregates were then saturated and equilibrated at matric potentials between ?600 kPa and saturation, and the water retention characteristics were measured. From subsamples of these aggregates, thin sections were made and the porosity and pore‐size distributions were studied with image analysis. Both image analysis and estimates of aggregated density showed that the rhizosphere soil and bulk soil had similar porosities. Growing different plants had a small but significant effect on the porosity of the soil aggregates. Image analysis showed that for all the plant species the structure of the rhizosphere soil was different to that of the bulk soil. The rhizosphere soil contained more larger pores. For maize and barley, water retention characteristics indicated that the rhizosphere soil tended to be drier at a given matric potential than bulk soil. This effect was particularly marked at greater matric potentials. The difference between the water retention characteristics of the bulk and rhizosphere soil for wheat was small. We compare the water retention characteristics with the data on pore‐size distribution from image analysis. We suggest that differences in wetting angle and pore connectivity might partly explain the differences in water retention characteristic that we observed. The impact of differences between the water retention properties of the rhizosphere and bulk soil is discussed in terms of the likely impact on root growth.     

Ammonium decreases muskmelon root system hydraulic conductivity

Abstract

The flow of water through plant roots is controlled by two driving forces, the transpiration rate (?P) and osmotic potential difference between the soil solution and inside the root (?π), and the root system hydraulic conductivity [L_root (L?m^‐2)]. Plant water status is affected by the source of nitrogen (N) supplied to the plant. This study was undertaken to isolate the effect of ammonium (NH₄)‐N on L_root from other factors affecting water transport through plants. The effect of NH₄‐N on muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) L_root was determined by estimating conductance at high water flux rates where osmotic effects are negligible. Ammonium decreased L_root by about 50%. At a given transpiration rate, the NH₄‐N‐induced decrease in L_root decreased leaf water potential [ψ_leaf (MPa)] which, in turn, may alter the behavior of the leaves as observed in other studies.     

Hydraulic lift may buffer rhizosphere hyphae against the negative effects of severe soil drying in a California Oak savanna

Many studies have shown that the total abundance of hyphae in the soil covaries seasonally with soil moisture. We investigated the extent to which soil hyphal abundance varies as a function of depth and moisture availability within the soil profile during the dry season, and determined whether soil moisture compensation via hydraulic lift (HL) buffers rhizosphere fungi from the effects of severe soil drying. We measured soil water potential, isotopic composition of soil water and total hyphal length in a California coast live oak stand and adjacent grassland at the beginning and end of the 5-month summer drought period. Throughout the summer, oaks maintained predawn water potential values (−0.4±0.1 MPa) that were significantly above those recorded in the 0-200 cm soil depth interval, strongly suggesting root access to groundwater. Direct evaporation of soil water was much more intense and affected deeper layers of the profile in the grassland compared to the oak stand, as indicated by extremely negative water potential values and very enriched isotopic composition of soil water near the surface. Significantly higher soil water potential and less isotopically enriched soil water at 15-40 cm depth in the oak stand were consistent with oak root exudation of isotopically depleted groundwater or deep soil water not exposed to evaporation. Hyphal length in the soil profile declined markedly during the summer drought period in the grassland, particularly in upper layers (41-75% decrease at 0-40 cm depth), indicating rapid turnover of the arbuscular mycorrhizae (AMF) dominated hyphal carbon pool after grass senescence. By contrast, soil hyphal length in the ectomycorrhizal (EM)/AM oak stand remained remarkably constant throughout the summer drought period, with the only exception of the topsoil layer exposed to direct evaporation (49% decrease at 5 cm depth). The sustained exudation of water from roots to soil through HL may have buffered rhizosphere hyphae against the negative effects of extreme soil desiccation in the oak stand. These data suggest that HL by deep-rooted trees may influence the biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nutrients in seasonally dry ecosystems through effects on rhizosphere fungi.     

外来入侵植物刺萼龙葵（Solanum rostratum Dunal）根际土壤真菌多样性及其次生代谢产物的化感作用研究

  目的  分析外来入侵植物刺萼龙葵根际土壤真菌群落多样性,了解其根际可培养真菌次生代谢产物的植物生长调节活性,并从中筛选具有开发为植物生长调节剂及生物除草剂潜力的菌株。  方法  采集刺萼龙葵根际土壤,提取总DNA,利用高通量测序技术分析土壤真菌群落多样性;同时,利用纯培养手段获得可培养真菌菌株,以乙酸乙酯萃取其发酵产物,并以单子叶植物早熟禾和双子叶植物反枝苋为受试植物,检测其次生代谢产物的促生/抑生活性。  结果  子囊菌门真菌广泛存在于刺萼龙葵根际土壤中,且占绝对优势。Alpha多样性分析发现,刺萼龙葵根际土壤中真菌群落有着非常高的多样性和丰富性。此外,菌株SR02、SR05和SR13对受试植物具有较强的生长抑制作用。  结论  刺萼龙葵根际土壤真菌优势类群明显,尖孢镰刀菌和链格孢在真菌群落中占优势地位;从根际土壤中发现多个具有显著生长促进或抑制作用的菌株,其在刺萼龙葵根际土壤中所起到的生理生态学意义,以及其次生代谢产物是否具有开发为植物生长调节剂及生物农药的潜力,值得进行深入的研究。     

Response of Lettuce and Rhizosphere Biota to Successive Additions of Zinc and Cadmium to a Tropical Entisol

Response of lettuce and rhizosphere biota to successive addition of zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) was assessed in a pot experiment using limed and unlimed tropical Entisol. Cadmium (2.5 mg kg^?1 soil) and Zn (50 mg kg^?1 soil) were spiked to soil 1 month after germination, and successive applications were superimposed as 5 and 10 times the first dose. Plants were analyzed for metal uptake and mycorrhizal colonization 1 week after each metal application. Rhizosphere soils were assessed for extractable Zn and Cd as well as populations of bacteria, fungi, and metal-tolerant fungi. The greatest metal doses resulted in 84–88 mg Zn and 8–10 mg Cd kg^?1 soil and 5–7.5 mg Cd and 70–72 mg Zn kg^?1 dry matter. Metal-tolerant fungi population increased from 9–13% to 26–63%, but mycorrhizal colonization and bacterial population were inhibited by 88% and 96%, respectively. Liming had relieved metal stress on rhizosphere biota but did not affect metal uptake.     

RHIZOSPHERE MICROBIAL POPULATIONS IN CONTAMINATED SOILS

Rhizosphere microbial populations may increase bioremediation of soil contaminated with organic chemicals. A growth chamber study was conducted to evaluate rhizosphere microbial populations in contaminated and non-contaminated soil. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and alpine bluegrass (Poa alpina L.) were grown in soil containing a mixture of organic chemicals for 14 weeks. The equal millimolar mixture of hexadecane, (2,2-dimethylpropyl)benzene, cis-decahydronaphthalene (decalin), benzoic acid, phenanthrene, and pyrene was added at levels of 0 and 2000 mg/kg. Organic chemical degrader (OCD) populations were assessed by a Most-Probable-Number technique, and bacteria and fungi were enumerated by plate count methods. Different methods for expressing OCD rhizosphere populations were investigated to determine the effect it had on interpretation of the results. At 9 weeks, the OCD numbers were significantly higher in rhizosphere and contaminated soils than in bulk and non-contaminated soils, respectively. Alfalfa rhizosphere OCD levels were 4 × 10⁷/g for contaminated and 6 × 10⁶/g for non-contaminated soils. Bluegrass rhizosphere OCD levels were 1 × 10⁷/g and 1 × 10⁶/g in contaminated and non-contaminated soils, respectively. Selective enrichment of OCD populations was observed in contaminated rhizosphere soil. Higher numbers of OCD in contaminated rhizospheres suggest potential stimulation of bioremediation around plant roots.     

养殖废水灌溉下施用生物质炭和果胶对土壤养分和重金属迁移的影响

【目的】 养殖废水中含有丰富的养分,但也含有一定的重金属。本文研究了生物质炭和果胶对养殖废水灌溉下的土壤–植物系统养分和重金属迁移规律的影响,以利用养殖废水中的养分,并对其重金属进行调控。 【方法】 选取新乡市郊区农田土壤为供试土壤,采用根箱试验方法种植玉米。设置根箱土壤中添加1%的生物质炭和果胶,分别灌溉蒸馏水和养殖废水发酵产生的沼液。测定了土壤中养分和重金属的含量,探讨了其在土壤–植物系统的迁移规律。 【结果】 沼液灌溉的植株地上部生长与蒸馏水灌溉无显著差异。果胶相比于生物质炭可以促进植株生长。沼液灌溉时,果胶处理的根系和地上部生物量分别比对照增加了25.38%和31.21%。沼液灌溉普遍降低了根际和非根际土壤的pH,生物质炭处理和果胶处理与对照根际和非根际土壤的pH均无显著差异。沼液灌溉增加了非根际土壤的电导,生物质炭相比于果胶增加了土壤的电导。沼液灌溉增加了土壤全氮、有效磷、速效钾和有机质含量。果胶根际土壤的全磷、碱解氮、有效磷、有效Fe、有效Mn均高于生物质炭处理,生物质炭处理根际和非根际土壤的全钾和速效钾含量均高于果胶处理。沼液灌溉相比于蒸馏水灌溉,增加了植株根、茎中N含量和Ca含量。生物质炭处理植株根茎叶N含量、根茎P含量、茎K含量、根茎叶Ca含量、根茎Mg含量高于果胶处理,但果胶处理养分的转运系数较高。养殖废水灌溉增加了根际和非根际土壤中有效Cu和Zn尤其是Zn的含量。与对照相比,生物质炭降低了根际土壤Cu、Pb、Ni的含量,而果胶增加了它们的含量。沼液灌溉增加了植株根茎叶中Cu、Zn、Pb含量,果胶处理植株根系Cu、Zn、Pb、Cd、Ni含量最高,但向地上部转运较少。 【结论】 在北方碱性土壤灌溉养殖废水发酵产生的沼液时,施用生物质炭和果胶可以提高土壤肥力和植株养分含量,生物质炭通过减少土壤中有效态重金属含量以减少重金属在植物体内累积,果胶虽然增加土壤有效态重金属含量,但可以降低其向地上部的转运,避免了重金属在植物体内的累积。      

烟草与丛枝菌根真菌的共生效应研究进展

丛枝菌根(Arbuscular mycorrhiza,AM)真菌是陆地生态系统中广泛存在的一类专性共生土壤微生物,是根系土壤区域中重要的功能菌群之一.AM真菌可侵染植物根系形成丛枝菌根共生体,改变植物根系形态和改善营养状况,从而提高宿主植物的生长发育、产量、质量和抗逆性.目前从烟草根系土壤分离报道的AM真菌已达13属5...     

Consequences of sodium exclusion for the osmotic potential in the rhizosphere – Comparison of two maize cultivars differing in Na+ uptake

According to the biphasic model of growth response to salinity, growth is first reduced by a decrease in the soil osmotic potential (Ψ_o), i.e., growth reduction is an effect of salt outside rather than inside the plant, and genotypes differing in salt resistance respond identically in this first phase. However, if genotypes differ in Na⁺ uptake as it has been described for the two maize cultivars Pioneer 3906 and Across 8023, this should result in differences in Na⁺ concentrations in the rhizosphere soil solution and thus in the concentration of salt outside the plant. It was the aim of the present investigation to test this hypothesis and to investigate the effect of such potential differences in soil Ψ_o caused by Na⁺ exclusion on plant water relations. Sodium exclusion at the root surface of intact plants growing in soil was investigated by sampling soil solution from the rhizosphere of two maize cultivars (Across 8023, Pioneer 3906). Plants were grown in a model system, consisting of a root compartment separated from the bulk soil compartment by a nylon net (30 μm mesh size), which enabled independent measurements of the change of soil solution composition and soil water content with increasing distance from the root surface (nylon net). Across 8023 accumulated higher amounts of sodium in the shoot compared to the excluder (Pioneer 3906). The lower Na⁺ uptake in the excluder was partly compensated by higher K⁺ uptake. Pioneer 3906 not only excluded sodium from the shoot but also restricted sodium uptake more efficiently from roots relative to Across 8023. This was reflected by higher Na⁺ concentrations in the rhizosphere soil solution of the excluder 34 days after planting (DAP). The difference in Na⁺ concentration in rhizosphere soil solution between cultivars was neither due to differences in transpiration and thus in mass flow, nor due to differences in actual soil water content. As the lower Na⁺ uptake of the excluder (Pioneer 3906) was only partly compensated by increased uptake of K⁺, soil Ψ_o in the rhizosphere of the excluder was more negative compared to Across 8023. However, no significant negative effect of decreased soil Ψ_o on plant water relations (transpiration rate, leaf Ψ_o, leaf water potential, leaf area) could be detected. This may be explained by the fact that significant differences in soil Ψ_o between the two cultivars occurred only towards the end of the experiment (27 DAP, 34 DAP).     

Desiccation tolerance of four strains of Rhizobium japonicum

The survival of different strains of Rhizobium japonicum was evaluated in three soils with two matric- and three osmotic-induced moisture potentials. Both drying and added NaCl significantly decreased populations. Strains CC 709 and USDA 110 were less affected by the matric- or osmotic-induced desiccation than strains CB 1809 and USDA 123. The survival of CC 709 and USDA 110 at 2 weeks with 0.7% added NaCI was 33 and 46% of initial counts in soils undergoing drying, and 70 and 69% in soils maintained at the 30kPa (0.3 bar) potential. Comparable survivals of CB 1809 and USDA 123 were 15 and 18% and 56 and 59%, respectively. The soil with the greatest clay and organic C contents maintained the highest populations during desiccation. Turbidity measurements indicated similar rates of growth of the four strains at a water activity (A_w) of 0.999 in yeast mannitol broth (YMB). When the YMB was adjusted with glycerol to lower water activities, strains CC 709 and USDA 110 consistently showed greater growth than did strains CB 1809 and USDA 123. No growth of CB 1809 and USDA 123 was observed at an (A_w) of 0.975. Water adsorption isotherms of freeze-dried cells showed that the more desiccation-susceptible strains (CC 709 and USDA 110) retained greater amounts of water at a given relative vapor pressure than did the two more tolerant strains.     

Gas diffusion through soil crumbs: the effects of compaction and wetting

Samples of 1–2 mm crumbs from a clay loam under permanent pasture were equilibrated at -5 kPa water potential then compacted to varying degrees. Gas diffusion coefficients D, (hydrogen through air), were measured immediately on compaction, again after re-equilibration at -5 kPa, then at other water contents between saturation and dryness. The relationship between diffusion coefficient and air content, was, as elsewhere, in two parts (dD/d small for drainage of pores within crumbs; large for pores between crumbs), but the transition from one part to the other occurred at smaller air contents with increased compaction. The air content at which D approached zero as the samples wetted was greatest in the loosest soil. Compaction from a bulk density of 0.86–1.29 g cm^?3 decreased the relative diffusion coefficient, D/D₀ (D₀ is the diffusion coefficient without impedance), from 0.35 to 0.22 (by 38%) at complete dryness, but from 0.19 to 0.035 (by 82%) in the soil initially at -5 kPa. On re-wetting and re-equilibrating at ?5 kPa, D/D₀ decreased further to 0.008 (total 97%) because of extra water held in the now smaller pores of the compacted soil. No single relationship between D/D₀ and fitted the results for even this one soil.