Plant‐frugivore interactions in an intact tropical forest in north‐east Thailand

Fleshy‐fruited plants in tropical forests largely rely on vertebrate frugivores to disperse their seeds. Although this plant–animal interaction is typically considered a diffuse mutualism, it is fundamental as it provides the template on which tropical forest communities are structured. We applied a mutualistic network approach to investigate the relationship between small‐fruited fleshy plant species and the fruit‐eating bird community in an intact evergreen forest in northeast Thailand. A minimum of 53 bird species consumed fruits of 136 plant species. Plant‐avian frugivore networks were highly asymmetrical, with observed networks filling 30% of all potential links. Whereas some of the missing links in the present study might be due to undersampling, forbidden links can be attributed to size constraints, accessibility and phenological uncoupling, and although the majority of missing links were unknown (58.2%), many were probably due to a given bird species being either rare or only a very occasional fruit eater. The most common frugivores were bulbuls, barbets and fairy‐bluebirds, which were responsible for the majority of fruit removal from small fleshy fruited species in our system. Migratory birds seemed to be a minor component of the plant‐frugivore networks, accounting for only 3% of feeding visits to fruiting trees; they filled 2% of the overall potential networks. The majority of interactions were generalized unspecific; however, Saurauia roxburghii Wall. appeared to be dependent on flowerpeckers for dispersal, while Thick‐billed Pigeons were only seen to eat figs.     

Secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles in an Amazonian forest fragment of Colombia: influence of dung type and edge effect

Seeds of many plant species are secondarily dispersed by dung beetles, but the outcome of this interaction is highly context‐specific. Little is known about how certain anthropogenic disturbances affect this plant–animal interaction. The aims of this study were to assess the effect of dung type on secondary dispersal by dung beetles in a forest fragment, and to determine whether this interaction is affected by edge effects. Using pitfall traps, we captured dung beetles attracted to dung of 2 frugivorous mammals: woolly monkeys and howler monkeys. We found differences between both dung beetle assemblages, but these differences were not consistent in time. Using seeds surrounded by both dung types, we carried out a field experiment using seeds of 2 plant species. We found that the probability of secondary dispersal by dung beetles was higher for seeds placed in woolly monkey dung. Finally, we carried out a field experiment using plastic beads as seed mimics to assess edge effects. We found that secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles was negatively affected by edges. The disruption of plant–animal interactions along anthropogenic forest edges could have long‐term negative effects on forest dynamics by affecting processes of regeneration.     

Nutrient Limitations of Carbon Uptake: From Leaves to Landscapes in a California Rangeland Ecosystem

Nutrient controls of ecosystem pattern and process have been widely studied at the Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve, a well-studied California rangeland ecosystem. Here we review these studies, from leaf to landscape scales, with the intention of developing a deeper understanding of carbon (C)–nutrient interactions in such an ecosystem. At the leaf scale, several studies conducted on diverse plant species have revealed a strong positive relationship between leaf nitrogen (N) concentrations and maximal rates of photosynthesis. This relationship, which has subsequently been observed globally, can be explained by the nutritional requirements of photosynthetic machinery. Consistent with this local physiological constraint, N availability has been shown to limit carbon uptake of California rangeland ecosystems. In some cases phosphorus (P; and N plus P) limits productivity, too—particularly in serpentine soils, pointing to the importance of parent material in regulating CO₂ uptake at landscape scales. Nutrient dynamics are also affected by herbivory, which seems to accelerate N and P cycles over the short term (years), but may lead to nutrient limitation of plant production over the longer term (decades). Simulated global change experiments at Jasper Ridge have also provided insight into C–nutrient interactions in grasslands. In particular, several field-based experiments have shown that CO₂ doubling does not necessarily simulate productivity of California grasslands; rather, the strength and sign of net primary productivity (NPP) responses to CO₂ doubling varies across years and conditions. Although simulated N deposition stimulates NPP, N plus CO₂ combinations do not necessarily increase productivity beyond N treatments singly. Poorly understood feedbacks between plants, microbes, and P availability may underlie variation in the response of California grasslands to increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. We conclude that interactions between C, N, and P appear especially vital in shaping plant productivity patterns in California rangelands and the capacity of this ecosystem to store additional C in the future.     

Effects of fragmentation on the seed predation and dispersal by rodents differ among species with different seed size

Fragmentation influences the population dynamics and community composition of vertebrate animals. Fragmentation effects on rodent species in forests may, in turn, affect seed predation and dispersal of many plant species. Previous studies have usually addressed this question by monitoring a single species, and their results are contradictory. Very few studies have discussed the fragmentation effect on rodent–seed interaction among tree species with different seed sizes, which can significantly influence rodent foraging preference and seed fate. Given that fruiting periods for many coexisting plant species overlap, the changing foraging preference of rodents may substantially alter plant communities. In this study, we monitored the dispersal and predation by rodents of 9600 seeds, belonging to 4 Fagaceae species with great variation in seed size, in both the edge and interior areas of 12 tropical forest fragments ranging in area from 6.3 to 13872.9 ha in Southwest China. The results showed that forest fragmentation altered the seed fates of all the species, but the intensity and even the direction of fragmentation effect differed between species with large versus small seeds. For the seeds harvested, fragment size showed negative effects in forest interiors but positive effects at edges for the 2 large‐seeded species, but showed little effect for the 2 small‐seeded species. For the seeds removed, negative effects of fragment size only existed among the small‐seeded species. The different fragmentation effect on seed dispersal and predation among plant species may, in turn, translate into the composition differences of the regeneration of the whole fragmented forest.     

Potential role of lava lizards as pollinators across the Galápagos Islands

Lizards have been reported as important pollinators on several oceanic islands. Here we evaluate the potential role of Galápagos lava lizards (Microlophus spp.) as pollinators across their radiation. Over 3 years, we sampled pollen transport by 9 lava lizard species on the 10 islands where they are present, including 7 single‐island endemics. Overall, only 25 of 296 individuals sampled (8.4%) transported pollen of 10 plant species, the most common being Prosopis juliflora, Exodeconus miersii, Sesuvium sp. and Cordia leucophlyctis. At least 8 of these plant species were native, and none were confirmed as introduced to the archipelago. Despite the low overall proportion of individuals carrying pollen, this was observed in 7 of the nine lizard species, and on 8 of the ten main islands (Española, Fernandina, Floreana, Isabela, Marchena, Pinta, Santa Cruz and Santiago), suggesting that this is a widespread interaction. The results reported here support the potential role of lava lizards as pollinators across their radiation, although they may represent a relatively modest contribution when compared with birds and insects. However, we cannot discard that lizards may be ecologically significant for particular plant species and ecosystems given the specific climatic condition and functional diversity of each island.     

青藏高原东部橐吾属植物的花性分配和雌全同株系统

雌全同株是指同一植株内同时拥有雌花和两性花的性系统,至今对该性系统的适应性研究较少。本文以青藏高原东部常见的3种橐吾属植物为材料,调查植株内头状花序的位置,植株高度和个体叶片去除对花性分配的影响。结果表明,3种橐吾均自交不亲和,并且花部特征存在显著的花序轴内变异,无论总状花序基向式发育还是顶向式发育,均表现出早期花有较大的花展示和偏雌的性分配,晚期花拥有较多胚珠和偏雄的性分配。较高的个体拥有较大的花展示,并在雌性功能上投入更多;被去除叶片的个体的花展示和雌花生物量投入均明显下降。然而,植株高度和叶片去除并不会改变花特征在花序内的变异。分析认为橐吾属植株的雌全同株系统的进化意义为资源的灵活分配和吸引传粉者,但无法排除减少雌雄功能冲突的可能。     

两种同域分布马先蒿植物花特征的表型选择研究

马先蒿属植物花形态的多样化与传粉者的选择密切相关,而同域分布、花期重叠且共享传粉者的亲缘种是如何维持种间差异的,目前还不清楚。研究以青藏高原东缘高寒草地的甘肃马先蒿和半扭卷马先蒿为试验材料,连续两年测定与传粉相关的花特征,通过雌性适合度(种子产量)估计两种马先蒿不同花特征所受的表型选择大小及差异。结果发现:1)两种马先蒿各自的花特征之间均表现出极显著的相关性。甘肃马先蒿的蜜腺深度、花大小及花柱长度之间是显著的正相关,年际间保持一致,而这些花特征与花序数及株高的相关性较低,尤其蜜腺深度与花序数和株高均没有表现出显著的相关性。半扭卷马先蒿的喙长、花柱长度、花大小表现出显著的正相关,但是喙长与其他花特征的相关性在年际间有显著变化。2)两种马先蒿的花序数和株高受到显著的表型选择。除以上特征外,甘肃马先蒿的花大小、花柱长度及蜜腺深度受到显著选择,而半扭卷马先蒿中较少发现对花大小及花柱长度的选择作用,尤其花冠喙长没有受到选择作用。以上结果表明,甘肃马先蒿的蜜腺深度、花大小及花柱长度的发育及功能可能是高度整合的。半扭卷马先蒿中,花柱长度与花大小同样也可能在发育及功能上具有高度整合特性。增加开花数目、延长花期以及增加植株高度,是马先蒿属植物提高雌性适合度(种子产量)的主要手段。甘肃马先蒿种群中,花冠较大、花柱更长、蜜腺更深的个体有更高的雌性适合度,即能够生产更多的种子。半扭卷马先蒿喙长的变化不影响雌性适合度(种子产量),可能与传粉者介导的花粉扩散,即雄性适合度有关。     

草食动物与草地植物多样性的互作关系研究进展

动物-植物互作关系一直是草地生态学研究的核心问题之一。在草地放牧系统中的动植物界面上,生物多样性的作用突出而敏感,因此,对动物与植物多样性的互作关系探讨,有益于深刻阐释放牧系统的稳定性与持久性机制。本文综述了有关草食动物对草地植物多样性的作用结果、影响因素、作用机制,以及植物多样性对草食动物生产性能、多度和多样性影响的研究现状,并就今后的研究方向提出几点建议:扩展动物多样性及不同动物组合对植物多样性的作用机制研究;加强有关植物多样性变化对草食动物、特别是大型草食性动物的反馈作用过程研究;加强对动物采食行为的深入理解,尤其是动物采食对植物多样性响应机制的认识;加强草食动物与植物多样性之间的动态互作关系研究,以及这种互作关系变化对草地生态系统过程及功能的影响研究。     

Rodent abundance triggered switch between the relative mutualism and predation in a rodent–seed system of the subtropical island forest

Density-dependent non-monotonic species interactions are important in maintaining ecosystem stability and function, but empirical evidences are still rare. Rodents, as both seed dispersers and seed predators, have dual effects on plant regeneration and may result in non-monotonic rodent-plant interactions. According to the non-monotonic models, the relative positive or negative effects of rodents on seedling establishment can be measured based on the positive or negative association of seedling recruitment rate and rodent abundance. In this study, we investigated the fates of acorns of Quercus serrata by tracking tagged seeds on 21 fragmented subtropical islands in the Thousand Island Lake, China. We found that the proportion of germinated seeds of all released seeds showed a dome-shaped association with rodent abundance per seed. The proportion of removed seeds and cached seeds showed a saturated- and a weak dome-shaped association with rodent abundance per seed, respectively. Our results demonstrated a clear empirical evidence that rodent abundance per seed triggered a switch between the relative mutualism and predation in a rodent–seed system. Our study implied that the observed non-monotonic interactions between plants and animals may play a significant role in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem function. We appeal for more investigations of the complex non-monotonic interactions in various ecosystems.     

Impact of rewilding,species introductions and climate change on the structure and function of the Yukon boreal forest ecosystem

Community and ecosystem changes are happening in the pristine boreal forest ecosystem of the Yukon for 2 reasons. First, climate change is affecting the abiotic environment (temperature, rainfall and growing season) and driving changes in plant productivity and predator–prey interactions. Second, simultaneously change is occurring because of mammal species reintroductions and rewilding. The key ecological question is the impact these faunal changes will have on trophic dynamics. Primary productivity in the boreal forest is increasing because of climatic warming, but plant species composition is unlikely to change significantly during the next 50–100 years. The 9–10‐year population cycle of snowshoe hares will persist but could be reduced in amplitude if winter weather increases predator hunting efficiency. Small rodents have increased in abundance because of increased vegetation growth. Arctic ground squirrels have disappeared from the forest because of increased predator hunting efficiency associated with shrub growth. Reintroductions have occurred for 2 reasons: human reintroductions of large ungulates and natural recolonization of mammals and birds extending their geographic ranges. The deliberate rewilding of wood bison (Bison bison) and elk (Cervus canadensis) has changed the trophic structure of this boreal ecosystem very little. The natural range expansion of mountain lions (Puma concolor), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and American marten (Martes americana) should have few ecosystem effects. Understanding potential changes will require long‐term monitoring studies and experiments on a scale we rarely deem possible. Ecosystems affected by climate change, species reintroductions and human alteration of habitats cannot remain stable and changes will be critically dependent on food web interactions.     

黄土丘陵区植物间正相互作用对幼苗更新的影响

幼苗阶段是植物生活史中最脆弱与关键的阶段,在土壤侵蚀强烈的黄土坡面,现有优势物种能否作为保育物种发挥植物间正相互作用促进幼苗更新与存活还缺乏研究。以黄土丘陵区的3种典型植物群落(白羊草群落、狼牙刺群落、铁杆蒿群落)为研究对象,采用样方调查法研究了植物斑块和裸地斑块下幼苗的密度、物种组成、物种多样性以及与地上植物物种相似性的变化规律,对不同植物间的正相互作用的强度进行分析。结果表明:1)在研究区共记录到幼苗 52种,分属22科,主要由禾本科、豆科和菊科植物构成,且以多年生草本植物为主;2)不同斑块下幼苗的物种数量、密度、多样性和相似性指数大体表现为植物斑块>裸地斑块;同为植物斑块,不同植物群落幼苗物种数量是铁杆蒿群落>白羊草群落>狼牙刺群落,密度为铁杆蒿群落>狼牙刺群落>白羊草群落,多样性指数为铁杆蒿群落>白羊草群落>狼牙刺群落;而裸地斑块的幼苗密度与多样性指数均为铁杆蒿群落>狼牙刺群落>白羊草群落。3种群落两种斑块幼苗与地上植物的相似性系数均低于0.5,属于极不相似或中等不相似水平;3)植物斑块中的成年植株对其周围的幼苗存在积极的正相互作用,但在侵蚀干扰更加强烈,环境更加恶劣的阳坡白羊草群落、狼牙刺群落不同斑块间物种组成差异更大,植物改善微生境,促进更多类型幼苗更新的作用更加明显。总之,3种植物作为保育植物均能促进幼苗存活,但随着植株个体生长,可能存在物种间相互作用的转变,使得幼苗和地上植物的相似性不高。     

Macro and trace elements of 26 browse species growing in semi-arid grazing lands of Eastern Cape,South Africa

ABSTRACT

Leaves and twigs from woody plants provide essential nutrients to range animals. We examined variation in the mineral status of 26 woody species, and the influence of harvesting height as well as the interactions of the main effects on minerals levels. Leaves were harvested from five individual plants per species at two height levels: low (<1 m) and upper (>1.5 m). For trees, all mineral levels showed variation (p < 0.05) between species. For shrubs and intermediate growth forms (between shrubs and trees), mineral levels except potassium (K) and zinc (Zn) were influenced (p < 0.05) by height × species interactions. Most browse species had calcium (Ca) contents (8.5–50 g kg^-1) above the required levels, with the majority of the species having Ca beyond the maximum tolerable limit. Most browse plants had sufficient K, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, iron and Zn concentrations to meet the requirements for ruminants. Copper was deficient in many browse leaves, thus supplementation should be considered in winter. We conclude that such knowledge is essential for sustainable use of browses as mineral supplements, especially during critical periods when climatic conditions limit the feed value of grasses.     

Seed traits and taxonomic relationships determine the occurrence of mutualisms versus seed predation in a tropical forest rodent and seed dispersal system

Although many studies have been carried out on plant–animal mutualistic assemblages, the roles of functional traits and taxonomy in determining both whether interactions involve mutualisms or predation and the structure of such assemblages are unclear. We used semi‐natural enclosures to quantitatively assess the interaction strengths between seeds of 8 sympatric tree species and 4 rodent species in a tropical forest in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, Southwest China. We found 2 clusters of species in the seed–rodent network represented by 2 genera in the Fagaceae (Castanopsis, Lithocarpus). Compared to seeds of 3 Castanopsis species, seeds with heavy weight, hard coat or caloric content (including 3 Lithocarpus species) were eaten less and more frequently hoarded by rodents. In turn, hoarded seeds showed less predation and more mutualism with rodents. Our results suggest that seed traits significantly affected the hoarding behavior of rodents, and, consequently, the occurrence of mutualisms and predation as well as assemblage structure in the plant–animal seed dispersal system. Taxonomically‐related species with similar seed traits as functional groups belong to the same substructures in the assemblage. Our results indicate that both seed traits and taxonomic relationships may simplify thinking about seed dispersal systems by helping to elucidate whether interactions are likely to be dominated by predation or mutualism.     

精选熊蜂在热带地区设施栽培西红柿与草莓的授粉潜力评估

熊蜂是相当有效率的授粉昆虫,经常在温带地区设施栽培西红柿、草莓园内被用来当成授粉的媒介,唯在热带地区应用的例子并不多。精选熊蜂(Bombus eximius Smith)广泛分布于东亚至东南亚的副热带气候区域,其生物特性与族群数量有潜力成为热带区域设施栽培作物的授粉昆虫。研究以西红柿与草莓为对象,评估精选熊蜂在热带地区网室栽培园的授粉效果。比较熊蜂授粉与植物生长调节剂处理的牛西红柿,熊蜂授粉处理组的果实种子数发育佳,且畸形果、空洞果或瘢瘤果少,每颗果实平均重量167.2g,较对照组120.6g重。比较熊蜂授粉处理与无授粉处理的草莓,熊蜂授粉处理组的瘦果发育较完整,畸形果少,果实平均重量4.9g,较无授粉处理的草莓2.3g为重,熊蜂授粉处理的草莓平均瘦果数100.4个,较对照组32.4个多。本研究评估在热带地区的设施栽培西红柿园内利用精选熊蜂授粉,具有节省劳力及促进西红柿品质的效果;而精选熊蜂对提高草莓果实品质,亦有显著效果。     

科尔沁草原区火电厂储灰池植被恢复及其植物种类动态

通过实地调查,对通辽发电总厂3个储灰池不同时间植被恢复及其植物种类动态进行了比较分析。结果表明,在3个正在植被恢复的储灰池中,共出现62种植物,隶属于20个科,47个属。其中,恢复10年区共有植物59种,恢复7年区48种,恢复4年区38种。3个植被恢复区均以禾本科和豆科植物占优势地位,总盖度在85％以上。恢复区的镶嵌群落以根茎植物为主。在Raunkiaer生活型谱中,3个植被恢复区均以一年生植物的比例最大。     

Plant Community Response Following Removal of Juniperus virginiana from Tallgrass Prairie: Testing for Restoration Limitations

Woody plant encroachment in natural grasslands is a widely documented global phenomenon that alters ecosystem dynamics by altering historic vegetation composition and suppressing herbaceous productivity. Abundant woody plants often suppress native plants sufficiently to establish successional thresholds difficult to reverse without species augmentation. Juniper (Juniperus virginiana L.) is expanding in North American tallgrass prairie, but it is currently unknown if encroachment creates successional restrictions that limit restoration potential. We selected 16 50×50-m sites with juniper canopy cover ranging from zero to approximately 75% in tallgrass prairie near Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA. Juniper trees were removed from 7 of the sites along the gradient of juniper canopy cover. Canopy cover of plant species and herbaceous plant productivity were estimated at each site 1 year before and 1, 2, and 5 years after tree removal. Before trees were removed, plant species richness and productivity declined as juniper canopy cover increased, and plant community composition dissimilarity of reference sites increased as juniper canopy cover increased. These relationships remained consistent on all non-removal sites throughout the study. The first year after juniper removal, species richness increased on all removal sites compared to intact sites and productivity on removal sites increased two years after removal. Plant community dissimilarity between reference sites and juniper removal sites remained relatively high (30–60%) the first two years after tree removal on all removal sites, but dissimilarity was about 22% 5 years after juniper removal. Within 5 years, removal sites were comparable to reference plant communities. Grassland restoration frequently requires species manipulation and additional seeding, particularly when overcoming successional limitations. Juniper encroachment into tallgrass prairie alters plant community species composition and productivity. However, in our study, juniper associated succession limitations were not apparent, and complete autogenic restoration was achieved within 5 years without seeding or species manipulation.     

授粉品种对黄冠梨坐果及果实品质的影响

为提高黄冠梨果实品质,试验选用4个梨品种为授粉品种,以生长健壮、盛果期的黄冠梨为母本进行人工授粉,测定了不同授粉组合的坐果率、果实外在品质及内在品质等几个主要指标。结果表明：黄冠梨果实在坐果率、果形指数、可食率、 单果重、可滴定酸、可溶性固形物等方面差异显著。综合考虑认为砀山酥梨是适宜景泰地区黄冠梨最适宜的授粉品种。     

新疆野生木本饲用植物评价及其开发利用

新疆野生木本饲用植物资源丰富。据统计，共有１５科，５４属，２１０种。该类群植物，适口性好，抗逆性强，鲜叶及嫩枝产量同，粗蛋白质，总能，有机质消化率和总消化养分可与野生的优良牧草相媲美。     

Bats and their vital ecosystem services: a global review

Bats play crucial ecosystem services as seed dispersers, pollinators, controllers of insects, and nutrient recyclers. However, there has not been a thorough global review evaluating these roles in bats across all biogeographical regions of the world. We reviewed the literature published during the last two decades and identified 283 relevant studies: 78 dealt with the control of potential insect pests by bats, 80 related to the suppression of other arthropods, 60 on the dispersal of native or endemic seeds, 11 dealt with the dispersal of seeds of introduced plants, 29 on the pollination of native or endemic plants, 1 study on pollination of introduced plants, and 24 on the use of guano as fertilizer. Our literature search showed that queries combining the terms “seed dispersal,” “insectivorous bats,” “nectarivorous bats,” “use of guano,” and “ecosystem services” returned 577 studies, but half were experimental in nature. We found that the evaluation of ecosystem services by bats has been mostly conducted in the Neotropical and Palearctic regions. To detect differences across relevant studies, and to explain trends in the study of ecosystem services provided by bats, we performed generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) fitted with a Poisson distribution to analyze potential differences among sampling methods. We identified 409 bat species that provide ecosystem services, 752 insect species consumed by bats and 549 plant species either dispersed or pollinated by bats. Our review summarizes the importance of conserving bat populations and the ecological services they provide, which is especially important during the current pandemic.