Chromosome choreography: the meiotic ballet

The separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis in eukaryotes is the physical basis of Mendelian inheritance. The core of the meiotic process is a specialized nuclear division (meiosis I) in which homologs pair with each other, recombine, and then segregate from each other. The processes of chromosome alignment and pairing allow for homolog recognition. Reciprocal meiotic recombination ensures meiotic chromosome segregation by converting sister chromatid cohesion into mechanisms that hold homologous chromosomes together. Finally, the ability of sister kinetochores to orient to a single pole at metaphase I allows the separation of homologs to two different daughter cells. Failures to properly accomplish this elegant chromosome dance result in aneuploidy, a major cause of miscarriage and birth defects in human beings.     

Separase regulates INCENP-Aurora B anaphase spindle function through Cdc14

The inner centromere-like protein (INCENP) forms a complex with the evolutionarily conserved family of Aurora Bkinases. The INCENP-Aurora complex helps coordinate chromosome segregation, spindle behavior, and cytokinesis during mitosis. INCENP-Aurora associates with kinetochores in metaphase and with spindle microtubules in anaphase, yet the trigger for this abrupt transfer is unknown. Here we show that the conserved phosphatase Cdc14 regulated the yeast INCENP-Aurora complex, Sli15-Ipl1. Cdc14 dephosphorylated Sli15 and thereby directed the complex to spindles. Activation of Cdc14 by separase was sufficient for Sli15 dephosphorylation and relocalization. Cdc14 not only regulates mitotic exit but also modulates spindle midzone assembly through Sli15-Ipl1.     

Requirement of the spindle checkpoint for proper chromosome segregation in budding yeast meiosis

The spindle checkpoint was characterized in meiosis of budding yeast. In the absence of the checkpoint, the frequency of meiosis I missegregation increased with increasing chromosome length, reaching 19% for the longest chromosome. Meiosis I nondisjunction in spindle checkpoint mutants could be prevented by delaying the onset of anaphase. In a recombination-defective mutant (spo11Delta), the checkpoint delays the biochemical events of anaphase I, suggesting that chromosomes that are attached to microtubules but are not under tension can activate the spindle checkpoint. Spindle checkpoint mutants reduce the accuracy of chromosome segregation in meiosis I much more than that in meiosis II, suggesting that checkpoint defects may contribute to Down syndrome.     

A mitotic septin scaffold required for Mammalian chromosome congression and segregation

Coordination of cytokinesis with chromosome congression and segregation is critical for proper cell division, but the mechanism is unknown. Here, septins, a conserved family of polymerizing guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins, localized to the metaphase plate during mitosis. Septin depletion resulted in chromosome loss from the metaphase plate, lack of chromosome segregation and spindle elongation, and incomplete cytokinesis upon delayed mitotic exit. These defects correlated with loss of the mitotic motor and the checkpoint regulator centromere-associated protein E (CENP-E) from the kinetochores of congressing chromosomes. Mammalian septins may thus form a mitotic scaffold for CENP-E and other effectors to coordinate cytokinesis with chromosome congression and segregation.     

Deformations within moving kinetochores reveal different sites of active and passive force generation

Kinetochores mediate chromosome segregation at mitosis. They are thought to contain both active, force-producing and passive, frictional interfaces with microtubules whose relative locations have been unclear. We inferred mechanical deformation within single kinetochores during metaphase oscillations by measuring average separations between fluorescently labeled kinetochore subunits in living cells undergoing mitosis. Inter-subunit distances were shorter in kinetochores moving toward poles than in those moving away. Inter-subunit separation decreased abruptly when kinetochores switched to poleward movement and decreased further when pulling force increased, suggesting that active force generation during poleward movement compresses kinetochores. The data revealed an active force-generating interface within kinetochores and a separate passive frictional interface located at least 20 nanometers away poleward. Together, these interfaces allow persistent attachment with intermittent active force generation.     

Requirement of Mis6 centromere connector for localizing a CENP-A-like protein in fission yeast

Mammalian kinetochores contain the centromere-specific histone H3 variant CENP-A, whose incorporation into limited chromosomal regions may be important for centromere function and chromosome segregation during mitosis. However, regulation of CENP-A localization and its role have not been clear. Here we report that the fission yeast homolog SpCENP-A is essential for establishing centromere chromatin associated with equal chromosome segregation. SpCENP-A binding to the nonrepetitious inner centromeres depended on Mis6, an essential centromere connector protein acting during G1-S phase of the cell cycle. Mis6 is likely required for recruiting SpCENP-A to form proper connection of sister centromeres.     

Molecular biology. The mad ways of meiosis

Reproductive cells that are destined to become sperm or egg undergo meiotic division during which the chromosome number is halved. As Sluder and McCollum explain in their Perspective, new findings (Shonn et al.) in yeast show that there is a spindle checkpoint that operates during meiosis to ensure that an equal number of replicated chromosomes arrives at each pole of the cell. One of the components of this meiotic spindle checkpoint turns out to be Mad2, which gives the signal to halt meiosis if it looks like unequal chromosome segregation is taking place.     

同源四倍体的连锁遗传

同源四倍体的遗传比一般二倍体要复杂得多,本文介绍了同源四倍体不同基因型依染色体随机分离、依染色单体随机分离以及完全均衡分离的遗传方式。同时也讨论了“双减数值”以及利用它测定基因与着丝点之间重组值的方法。此外还讨论了测定基因与基因之间重组值的方法。这些对于同源四倍体的遗传育种研究都有重要参考价值。     

‘正午’牡丹核型分析及减数分裂的染色体行为观察

目的芍药属牡丹组革质花盘亚组与肉质花盘亚组间的远缘杂交是现代牡丹育种的重要方向之一。然而,亚组间杂种普遍高度不育,很难继续用于杂交育种。‘正午’牡丹是一个观赏性好、适应性强的亚组间杂交品种,虽然其通常高度不育,但仍被用作亲本培育出一些优异的杂交后代,表现出一定的育性。研究其减数分裂的染色体行为,可为揭示其极低育性的形成机制提供重要的信息。方法本研究以‘正午’幼嫩花蕾中的雌蕊为材料,进行体细胞染色体核型分析;以花药为材料进行花粉母细胞减数分裂观察。结果‘正午’牡丹为二倍体,核型公式为2n = 2x = 10 = 7m + 1sm + 2st（1SAT）。其花粉母细胞可通过正常的减数分裂形成四分体及小孢子,减数第一次分裂中约有70%的花粉母细胞发生染色体行为异常,包括单价体及多价体、染色体桥、断片、落后染色体、不等分裂等,其中染色体桥出现频率最高;减数第二次分裂中,染色体行为异常率同样高达70%,常见的异常类型包括纺锤体定位异常、不同步分裂、染色体桥、断片、落后染色体等,最后形成二分体、三分体、微核或特小的额外小孢子。结论‘正午’减数分裂存在大量异常可能与其高度杂合的核型有关。普遍存在的单价体及多价体引起的不等分裂和染色体桥及断片造成的染色体片段缺失等染色体行为异常可能是导致‘正午’牡丹高度不育的重要原因。同时,仍有一小部分花粉母细胞能够顺利完成减数分裂,形成小孢子。其中一部分通过二分体或三分体形成未减数小孢子,表明其具有用于培育多倍体牡丹的潜力。      

Chromosome alignment and segregation regulated by ubiquitination of survivin

Proper chromosome segregation requires the attachment of sister kinetochores to microtubules from opposite spindle poles to form bi-oriented chromosomes on the metaphase spindle. The chromosome passenger complex containing Survivin and the kinase Aurora B regulates this process from the centromeres. We report that a de-ubiquitinating enzyme, hFAM, regulates chromosome alignment and segregation by controlling both the dynamic association of Survivin with centromeres and the proper targeting of Survivin and Aurora B to centromeres. Survivin is ubiquitinated in mitosis through both Lys(48) and Lys(63) ubiquitin linkages. Lys(63) de-ubiquitination mediated by hFAM is required for the dissociation of Survivin from centromeres, whereas Lys(63) ubiquitination mediated by the ubiquitin binding protein Ufd1 is required for the association of Survivin with centromeres. Thus, ubiquitinaton regulates dynamic protein-protein interactions and chromosome segregation independently of protein degradation.     

生殖细胞早期发生与减数分裂启动调节机制的研究进展

卵巢性生殖疾病发生的主要原因之一是卵子发生过程中减数分裂发生或染色体分离异常。为了更好地进行这些生殖疾病的诊断和治疗,需要充分地了解个体发育的生物学过程中及关键时间点。鉴于此,本文主要阐述了哺乳动物生殖细胞早期发生和减数分裂启动的生理过程,介绍生殖细胞的出现、迁移、性别分化和减数分裂的整个过程。深入了解卵母细胞发生过程将为利用体外发育来源的卵母细胞治疗卵巢性生殖疾病,克服女性不孕、卵巢早衰等重大疾病提供一定的理论支持。     

龙须草核型分析和花粉母细胞减数分裂的细胞学研究

【目的】研究和确定禾本科无融合生殖植物——龙须草（Eulaliopsis binata）的染色体数目并进一步判断其倍性。【方法】采用根尖压片法确定龙须草的染色体数目，通过分析龙须草核型和花粉母细胞减数分裂过程中染色体行为确定其倍性水平。【结果】龙须草根尖细胞染色体数目为40条，核型公式为2n＝40＝18m+2sm，属于1B型。龙须草花粉母细胞减数分裂为连续型胞质分裂，终变期染色体构型为20Ⅱ。在其减数分裂过程观察到中期Ⅰ出现不配对染色体（34.3％），后期Ⅰ出现落后染色体，变幅为1～3个（32.4％），末期Ⅱ～四分体时期可观察到明显的微核（20％）等异常现象。【结论】龙须草是异源四倍体植物，具有40条染色体。     

苎麻染色体核型和Giemsa C-带型及PMC减数分裂行为的研究

本试验以苎麻品种芦竹青为材料,从有丝分裂和减数分裂两个方面进行研究,有丝分裂以嫩稍扦插诱导萌发幼根,采用F-BSG法制备染色体标本,对其染色体核型和Giemsa带型进行的分析结果表明,苎麻的核型公式为2n=28=8(L)st+18(S)st+2(S)SAT,全为不对称的染色体,N·F,值与其染色体的条数相等,每组染色体的臂指数均大于78%,染色体长度比大于2.1:1,属于4B类核型,Giemsa C-带带型单一,短臂为全带,长臂为着丝点带,减数分裂以2%醋酸洋红压片,发现同一株上幼蕾着生的部位不同,其发育进度不一致,以着生在茎的中,上部的幼蕾发育快,同一枝梗上以着生于下部的幼蕾发育早,而同一幼蕾的PMC在减数分裂终变期,后期I,末期I以及后期I,四分体等阶段同步程度高,同时观察到存在一定的高峰期。     

An alternative pathway for meiotic chromosome segregation in yeast

In meiosis I of most organisms, homologous chromosomes pair, recombine, and then segregate to opposite poles of the cell. Crossing-over is normally necessary to ensure the proper segregation of the homologs. Recently developed techniques have made it possible to study meiosis with highly defined artificial chromosomes. These techniques were used to demonstrate the existence of a system capable of segregating pairs of nonrecombined artificial chromosomes, regardless of the extent of their sequence homology. This system may contribute to the high fidelity of meiosis by mediating the segregation of pairs of natural chromosomes that have failed to recombine.     

A genome-wide screen identifies genes required for centromeric cohesion

During meiosis, two chromosome segregation phases follow a single round of DNA replication. We identified factors required to establish this specialized cell cycle by examining meiotic chromosome segregation in a collection of yeast strains lacking all nonessential genes. This analysis revealed Sgo1, Chl4, and Iml3 to be important for retaining centromeric cohesin until the onset of anaphase II. Consistent with this role, Sgo1 localizes to centromeric regions but dissociates at the onset of anaphase II. The screen described here provides a comprehensive analysis of the genes required for the meiotic cell cycle and identifies three factors important for the stepwise loss of sister chromatid cohesion.     

Robust crossover assurance and regulated interhomolog access maintain meiotic crossover number

Most organisms rely on interhomolog crossovers (COs) to ensure proper meiotic chromosome segregation but make few COs per chromosome pair. By monitoring repair events at a defined double-strand break (DSB) site during Caenorhabditis elegans meiosis, we reveal mechanisms that ensure formation of the obligate CO while limiting CO number. We find that CO is the preferred DSB repair outcome in the absence of inhibitory effects of other (nascent) recombination events. Thus, a single DSB per chromosome pair is largely sufficient to ensure CO formation. Further, we show that access to the homolog as a repair template is regulated, shutting down simultaneously for both CO and noncrossover (NCO) pathways. We propose that regulation of interhomolog access limits CO number and contributes to CO interference.     

Distinct cohesin complexes organize meiotic chromosome domains

Meiotic cohesin complexes at centromeres behave differently from those along chromosome arms, but the basis for these differences has remained elusive. The fission yeast cohesin molecule Rec8 largely replaces its mitotic counterpart, Rad21/Scc1, along the entire chromosome during meiosis. Here we show that Rec8 complexes along chromosome arms contain Rec11, whereas those in the vicinity of centromeres have a different partner subunit, Psc3. The arm associated Rec8-Rec11 complexes are critical for meiotic recombination. The Rec8-Psc3 complexes comprise two different types of assemblies. First, pericentromeric Rec8-Psc3 complexes depend on histone methylation-directed heterochromatin for their localization and are required for cohesion during meiosis II. Second, central core Rec8-Psc3 complexes form independently of heterochromatin and are presumably required for establishing monopolar attachment at meiosis I. These findings define distinct modes of assembly and functions for cohesin complexes at different regions along chromosomes.     

异源三倍体百合减数分裂染色体行为的研究

采用细胞遗传学方法,对Longiflorum×Asiatic系列异源三倍体百合 ‘Bonsoir’（2n=3x=36）小孢子母细胞减数分裂进行了研究和分析。结果显示,有64.31% 的花粉具有活力,且有活力的花粉大小范围在986.33~3 491.68 μm2之间,并呈双峰分布。形成败育花粉的主要原因如下:高度不规则的染色体配对、落后染色体、染色体桥、不均等分离、微核等现象。另外,减数分裂中期Ⅱ纺锤体的异常定向导致了末期Ⅱ二分体和三分体的形成,产生未减数的配子,如融合纺锤体和三极纺锤体;但平行纺锤体和垂直纺锤体不参与未减数配子的形成。一些小孢子母细胞在胞质分裂过程中未形成细胞板,导致单分体的形成以及二分体和三分体的增加,提高了未减数配子的频率。通过对小孢子发生过程中各种现象的观察,对异源三倍体百合在育种中的应用进行讨论。      

植物着丝粒区串联重复序列的研究进展

着丝粒是细胞染色体的重要结构组成,控制姊妹染色单体的结合、动粒的组装和纺锤丝的附着,确保真核生物细胞在有丝分裂和减数分裂过程中染色体的正常分离及遗传信息的稳定传递。植物着丝粒DNA序列主要由反转录转座子和串联重复序列构成。串联重复序列在着丝粒功能实现和基因组进化过程中起重要作用。随着测序技术的成熟,近年来对串联重复序列的研究取得了很大的进展。综述了植物串联重复序列结构、分析方法及在进化中的作用,以期为相关研究提供参考。     

Orc6 involved in DNA replication,chromosome segregation,and cytokinesis

Origin recognition complex (ORC) proteins serve as a landing pad for the assembly of a multiprotein prereplicative complex, which is required to initiate DNA replication. During mitosis, the smallest subunit of human ORC, Orc6, localizes to kinetochores and to a reticular-like structure around the cell periphery. As chromosomes segregate during anaphase, the reticular structures align along the plane of cell division and some Orc6 localizes to the midbody before cells separate. Silencing of Orc6 expression by small interfering RNA (siRNA) resulted in cells with multipolar spindles, aberrant mitosis, formation of multinucleated cells, and decreased DNA replication. Prolonged periods of Orc6 depletion caused a decrease in cell proliferation and increased cell death. These results implicate Orc6 as an essential gene that coordinates chromosome replication and segregation with cytokinesis.