Water balance estimates of evaporation from ponded rice fields in a semi-arid region

Evaporation from ponded rice grown on fine-textured soils was calculated using a simple water balance equation, and compared with pan evaporation measured at a regional meteorological station. Crop/pan (E_r/E_p) evaporation ratios showed seasonal trends, with values generally exceeding unity during the mid- to late-season ponding period. Mid-summer ratios of E_r/E_p for two experimental fields were not significantly different from those reported in a previous study using a different experimental technique, but were higher on a third. On the average, evaporation over the whole ponding period equalled that from a Class A pan. The assumption that the infiltration or seepage term of the water balance may be neglected for fine-textured soils would seriously overestimate E_r on one of the three experimental sites.     

Water balance of flooded rice paddies

Rice (Oryza sativa L., var. Labelle) was grown in 300 m² paddies of Beaumont clay soil (Typic pelludert) and subjected to two management schemes of flooded rice culture. These schemes were continuous irrigation and intermittent irrigation. Careful measurements of irrigation, precipitation, evapotranspiration, deep percolation and runoff were made, and the total water balance for the two water management schemes was calculated.The results show continuous irrigation to be very wasteful of water with slightly over 1 m of irrigation water applied to supply an evapotranspirational need of 0.5–0.6 m. The intermittent irrigation management is less wasteful but still could be improved upon. Suggestions are presented for techniques to help improve the water use efficiency and reduce runoff losses.     

Development and evaluation of the SoilClim model for water balance and soil climate estimates

The newly developed SoilClim model is introduced as a tool for estimates of reference (ETo) and actual (ETa) evapotranspiration, presence of snow cover, soil temperature at 0.5 m depth and the soil moisture course within two defined layers. It enables one to determine the soil moisture and temperature regimes according to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil taxonomy. SoilClim works with daily time steps and requires maximum and minimum air temperature, global solar radiation, precipitation, vapor pressure and wind speed as meteorological inputs as well as basic information about the soil properties and vegetation cover. The behavior of SoilClim was assessed using observations at 5 stations in central Europe and 15 stations in the central U.S. The modeled ETo was compared with atmometers so that the coefficient of determination (R²) was 0.91 and root mean square error (RMSE) was 0.53 mm. The estimated ETa was compared against eddy-covariance and Bowen ratio measurements (R² varied from 0.74 to 0.80; RMSE varied from 0.49 to 0.58 mm). The soil temperature (at 0.5 m depth) was estimated with good accuracy (R² varied from 0.94 to 0.97; RMSE varied from 1.23 °C to 2.95 °C). The ability of the SoilClim model to mimic the observed soil water dynamics was carefully investigated (relative root mean square error rRMSE varied from 2.8% to 34.0%). The analysis conducted showed that SoilClim gives reasonable estimates of evaluated parameters at a majority of the included stations. Finally, a spatial analysis of soil moisture and temperature regimes (according to USDA) within the region of the Czech Republic and the northern part of Austria under present conditions was conducted and diagnosed the appearance of Perudic, Subhumid Udic, Dry Tempudic (the highest frequency), Wet Tempustic and Typic Tempustic. The simulated mean soil temperature (0.5 m depth) varied from less than 7.0 °C to 11.0 °C throughout this region. Based on these results, the SoilClim model is a useful and suitable tool for water balance and soil climate assessment on local and regional scales.     

Water balance model for paddy fields under intermittent irrigation practices

A water balance model applicable to intermittent irrigation practice in rice fields was developed. The model inputs consist of climatic data and soil parameters. The model is formulated to simulate various processes such as evapotranspiration, deep percolation, surface runoff and depth of irrigation water to be applied on a daily as well as a seasonal basis. It also simulates daily ponding depth in the field. Both saturated and unsaturated water flow concepts were incorporated into the model to predict deep percolation loss during wet and dry periods of the field. The model was validated using data collected from field experiments. The details of model development and validation are outlined in this paper. Received: 21 December 1999     

Water use estimates for various rice production systems in Mississippi and Arkansas

Rice irrigation-water use was estimated in Mississippi (MS) and Arkansas (AR) in 2003 and 2004. Irrigation inputs were compared on naturally sloping (i.e. contour-levee system) and mechanically graded fields. In MS, rice production consumed, on average, 895 mm water, but irrigation inputs were greatly affected by production system. Contour-levee systems accounted for 35% of the production area and consumed 1,034 mm irrigation. Fields mechanically graded to a consistent slope of approximately 0.1% (i.e. straight-levee systems) consumed 856 mm irrigation and accounted for 60% of the production area. Fields devoid of slope (i.e. zero-grade system) accounted for 5% of the production area and consumed 382 mm irrigation. In AR, contour-levee rice production consumed 789 mm compared to 653 mm with a straight-levee system. Using low pressure, thin wall (9–10 mil) disposable irrigation tubing to deliver water to each paddy independently reduced irrigation inputs by 28% in MS and 11% in AR when compared to a single-point (levee-gate) distribution system.     

镇安县水资源评价及供需平衡分析

本文对陕西省镇安县水资源总量及可利用量和各行业对水资源的需求量进行了分析,研究了水资源利用现状,经供需平衡分析得出该县水资源量充足,但可利用水量有限.因此,需加快水利建设,依靠科技发展满足经济社会对水资源的需求,促进当地经济建设.     

Water balance of centre pivot irrigated pasture in northern Victoria, Australia

The irrigated dairy industry in Australia depends on pasture as a low-cost source of fodder for milk production. The industry is under increasing pressure to use limited water resources more efficiently. Pasture is commonly irrigated using border-check but there is growing interest amongst dairy irrigators to explore the potential for overhead sprinklers to save water and/or increase productivity. This paper reports on a detailed water balance study that evaluated the effectiveness of centre pivot irrigation for pasture production. The study was conducted between 2004/2005 and 2005/2006 on a commercial dairy farm in the Shepparton Irrigation Region in northern Victoria. More than 90% of supplied water (irrigation plus rainfall) was utilized for pasture growth. Deep drainage of respectively 90 and 93 mm was recorded for the two observation seasons. During the 2004/2005 season, deep drainage resulted from large unseasonal summer rainfall events. Over the 2005/2006 season, deep drainage resulted from excess irrigation. The cumulative pasture dry matter (DM) production was 15.5 and 11.3 tonnes DM ha⁻¹ for the two irrigation seasons, with an agronomic water use efficiency (WUE) of 16 and 12 kg DM ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ respectively. The farmer's intuitive irrigation scheduling was found to be very effective; the pattern of irrigation application closely matched measured pasture water use, prevented water stress and resulted in high irrigation efficiency.     

Water balance and pattern of soil water uptake in a peach orchard

Five-year-old peach trees were irrigated at 50% and 100% of calculated maximum evapotranspiration (MET) in order to determine the influence of water stress on the pattern of water uptake from the soil and on the actual evapotranspiration (AET) of the crop. A simplified water balance method based on the relationship between the drainage component and the soil water content averaged over the soil profile has been used to estimate AET from periodic neutron probe measurements.Maximum water uptake is from the upper 60 cm of soil when trees are well-watered. Decreased soil water content induces a shift in the soil water uptake towards deeper layers, which can be due either to upward fluxes of water or to an increased water uptake by deeper roots.AET in the 50% MET regime is reduced from July to September, compared to the 100% MET regime, partly because of stomatal closure. There is no drainage in the 50% MET treatment from June to September; it is about 1 mm day⁻¹ in the 100% MET regime until the end of August and ceases in September when the soil dries.     

Water balance and nitrate leaching in an irrigated maize crop in SW Spain

During 3 consecutive years (1991–1993) a field experiment was conducted in an intensively irrigated agricultural soil in SW Spain. The main objective of this study was to determine the water flow and nitrate (N0₃) leaching, below the root zone, under an irrigated maize crop and after the growing season (bare soil and rainy period). The experiment was carried out on a furrow-irrigated maize crop at two different nitrogen (N)-fertilization rates, one the highest traditionally used by farmers in the region (about 500 kg N ha⁻¹ per year) and the other one-third of the former (170 kg N ha⁻¹ per year). The aim was to obtain data that could be used to propose modifications in N-fertilization to maintain crop yield and to prevent the degradation of the environment. The terms for water balance (crop evapotranspiration, drainage and soil water storage) and nitrate leaching were determined by intensive field monitoring of the soil water content, soil water potential and extraction of the soil solution by a combination of neutron probe, tensiometers and ceramic suction cups. Nitrogen uptake by the plant and N0₃-N produced by mineralization were also determined.The results showed that, in terms of water balance, crop evapotranspiration was similar at both N-fertilization rates used. During the irrigation period, drainage below the root zone was limited. Only in 1992 did the occurrence of rainfall during the early growing period, when the soil was wet from previous irrigation, cause considerable drainage. Nitrate leaching during the whole experimental period amounted to 150 and 43 kg ha⁻¹ in the treatments with high and low N-fertilization, respectively. This occurred mainly during the bare soil and rainy periods, except in 1992 when considerable nitrate leaching was observed during the crop season due to the high drainage. Nitrate leaching was not so high during the bare soil period as might have been expected because of the brought during the experimental period. A reduction of N-fertilization thus strongly decreased nitrate leaching without decreasing yield.     

Water balance of Swamp Mahogany and Rhodes grass irrigated with treated sewage effluent

Water balance of Swamp Mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta Sm.) and Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana Kunth var. Callide) plantations was studied in large experimental plots, which were irrigated with secondary treated sewage effluent. The tree plots designated as T10, T20, T30 and T40 received four different nitrogen (N) concentrations of 10, 20, 30 and 40 mg/l, respectively. The grass plot designated as G30 received one N level (30 mg/l). The objective of the study was to compare growth and water use of these plantations and the possible effluent losses to the environment.There was little response to N treatment in the first year of tree growth. A significant response to high N concentration was observed in tree treatment plots in the second year of the growth. Thus, at 20 month stage, the T40 trees reached a height of 4.1 m and had a leaf area index (LAI) of 2.5 compared with 2.2 m and 1.6, respectively in T10 trees. As expected, the T40 treatment had the largest interception losses (10%) and the least runoff and interflow. There was a progressive decrease in runoff and interflow with reductions in the level of nitrogen applied.Annual evapotranspiration was calculated to be 982 and 1191 mm, in the first and second year for grass compared with 1126 and 1269 mm, respectively for the T30 treatment. Grass and trees receiving the same concentration of N in effluent (30 mg/l) were transpiring at similar monthly rates, with crop factors of 0.79 for the grass and 0.85 for the trees, which were not statistically different. These results in plots subject to regular effluent irrigation are markedly different from findings of previous studies, which indicated a very large increase in water use of trees compared to grass vegetation under dryland conditions. Although evapotranspiration utilised the largest portion of the incoming water to the plots, the need for irrigation was reduced by the occurrence of frequent rainfall at the site. Runoff comprised the largest off site loss mechanism, especially during high rainfall periods indicating that coastal areas with low irrigation demand provide a limited opportunity for land disposal of effluent. Other site characteristics such as shallow soils increase the risks of environmental pollution through runoff from application site. Increase in area of application and adoption of a filtering technique will reduce risks to the soil and the environment.     

Water resources management in Crete (Greece) including water recycling and reuse and proposed quality criteria

In Crete, Greece despite having adequate atmospheric precipitation, water imbalance is often experienced, because of temporal and spatial variations in the precipitation, an increase in water demand during summer months and the difficulty of transporting water due to the mountainous terrain. Crete can be regarded as a representative mediterranean region with a relatively high potential for wastewater recycling and reuse. Preliminary estimates show that the implementation of wastewater recycling and reuse plans would lead to water savings of up to 5% of the total irrigation water. The basic aim of this paper is to present views on integrated water resources management in Crete, Greece including the potential for the recycling and reuse of treated wastewater. A preliminary inventory, distribution and mapping of wastewater treatment systems in Crete is also presented. Furthermore, the quality of treated effluents, disposal sites, irrigated areas, and environmental, social, economical, and agronomical impacts are considered. Finally, quality criteria for reuse of treated wastewater in Greece and maybe for other mediterranean countries are proposed.     

Water balance of the olive tree–annual crop association: A modeling approach

Water transfers within mixed crops systems are complicated to understand due to the large number of complex interactions between the various components. Standard techniques fail to provide the proper assessment of the components of the water balance. Experiments and modeling developments are used to understand the dynamics of water transfers within the association of olive trees with annual crops under irrigation in Central Tunisia. The whole system is represented by a unit area made up of three components: a plot with the annual crop, a plot with the olive tree and a plot of bare soil. The modeling approach is based on the concept of reservoir. The model works on a daily time step and accounts for the lateral transfers of water occurring between the components of the system: (i) the water uptake by the roots of olive trees; (ii) the physical flow of water between the irrigated plot and the non-irrigated ones. A field experiment was carried out during 2 years (2002, 2003) and three crop cycles (spring potato, spring pea and autumn potato) in order to calibrate the model and test its validity. Olive tree transpiration was estimated from sap flow measurements and soil moisture in the different compartments was measured by neutron probe technique. The experimental data compare fairly well with the model outputs. The first purpose of the model is to understand the functioning of the olive tree–annual crop association from a water standpoint, but it can be easily extended to other intercropping systems mixing perennial vegetation with annual crops or used as a management tool. The estimates of the water extracted by the olive trees in each reservoir appear to be much more significant than those of the water physically transferred between reservoirs.     

Water balance and water use efficiency of different land uses in western Himalayan valley region

Various land uses, including sole plantations of leucaena and eucalyptus, maize–wheat, chrysopogon grass or turmeric and their tree crop mixtures were compared for period of nine years in two sequences for runoff, water use and water use efficiency on nine large erosion plots on 4% slope. Availability of water during summers and climatic evaporative (EP) demand during winters appear to be the governing factors for seasonal water use. About 70% of annual water consumption occurs during the four months (July to October) of rainy season. During this season water use was about 3–4 times to EP for trees and grass and 2.5 times for maize. The water use equals EP regardless the land use during winter season, while it reduced to about one-third to half of EP in the summer season. Annual water use is found to be closely linked with runoff reduction efficiency of the land use. Sole plantations of leucaena and eucalyptus showed negligible runoff losses and their water use approximated annual rainfall. Agroforestry land uses also reduced runoff and increased water use and water use efficiency. Seasonal crops exploited 1.5 m depth of profile more exhaustively than trees, whereas trees used soil water down to 3.0 m depth. Therefore, in tree crop mixtures more efficient soil water use was observed as compared to monocropping systems. Results of this study indicate that water conserved under sole tree plantations and due to tree intervention in agroforestry land uses through runoff reduction, is utilised to meet increased evapotranspiration demand, and hence ground water recharge in appreciable quantities is unlikely.     

Water and salt balance in an irrigated area of the Ebro River Basin (Spain)

Summary Water balance components (effective precipitation, diverted water, actual evapotranspiration and irrigation return flow) and salt balance components (TDS of precipitation, diverted water and irrigation return flow, and sources/sinks in the soil profile) of the Violada irrigation district (3,913 ha) located in the Ebro river basin were measured for the 1982 and 1983 hydrological years. The irrigation district discharges annually 73,000 t of salt into its receiving river. The gypsiferous character of the soils gives a saturated gypsum character to the leachate resulting in a fairly constant TDS of the irrigation return flow (coefficient of variation of 12% for the 1982 hydrological year). The salt load of this area is 18.8 t/ha due to the gypsum content of the soils and improper water management. This results in a mean annual irrigation application efficiency (JAE), calculated as the average actual evapotranspiration/diverted irrigation water ratio, of 0.67 for the 2 years studied. On-farm irrigation system evaluation tests were performed in order to evaluate uniformity of water application and irrigation requirements of the main crops. The results indicate that JAE can be improved by means of better irrigation water management (especially irrigation scheduling) and proper land levelling of the fields.Formerly Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, CRIDA-03     

鄂托克前旗毛乌素沙地GSPAC系统水分动态分析

在分析地下水与土壤-植物-大气连续体GSPAC的关系基础上,系统探讨了沙地GSPAC天然植被水分系统关系,定量揭示了毛乌素沙地土壤含水率、降雨和地下水以及地下水与植被地下生物量的关系。结果表明:随着地下水埋深的增加,植被的地下生物量有明显的降低趋势;在地下水埋深小于1.8 m、降雨大于8 mm时对地下水产生不同程度影响。成果对沙地生态保护具有一定的指导作用。     

Seasonal and interannual variations in water vapor exchange and surface water balance over a grazed steppe in central Mongolia

This study explored the seasonal and interannual variation in water vapor exchange and surface water balance over a grazed steppe in central Mongolia through analysis of 4 years (2003-2006) of flux data obtained via the eddy covariance method. Annual precipitation (PPT) in 2003 measured 239 mm which is 32% above the 10-year (1983-2002) average of 181 mm. By contrast, PPT for the other 3 years of the study fell below the 10-year average, measuring 159 mm in 2004, 110 mm in 2005, and 119 mm in 2006. The annual evapotranspiration (ET) for each of the study years measured 156, 160, 153, and 101 mm, respectively, and the peak value of ET during the growing season varied from 2.2 to 3.2 mm d⁻¹. At the study site, the ratio of ET to the equilibrium ET (ET_eq) was usually lower than 0.5 during the growing season, which reflects the significant effect of water shortage on ET. The large seasonal variation in canopy surface conductance (g_s), caused by variation in soil water content (SWC) and vapor pressure deficit (VPD), was the major factor affecting ET. The annual ET/PPT was 0.65 in 2003, 1.01 in 2004, 1.39 in 2005, and 0.85 in 2006. The stored soil water (especially at a depth of 0-30 cm) resulting from autumnal precipitation of the previous year remained frozen for about 5 months, from winter through early spring. This stored water had a considerable effect on plant growth during the following spring. For the central Mongolian steppe, there was a high correlation between the mean normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and total precipitation during the growing season (May-September) as well as during the preceding 9 months (August-April). This correlation reflects the important contribution of precipitation input and stored soil water during the previous year to ET.     

古希腊公平理论研究述评

柏拉图和亚里士多德的公平理论代表着古希腊公平理论的最高成就,通过介绍其公平理论的时代背景、内容,分析其理论的成就和不足,以期对公平理论的研究和实践提供参考.     

古希腊公平理论研究述评

柏拉图和亚里士多德的公平理论代表着古希腊公平理论的最高成就,通过介绍其公平理论的时代背景、内容,分析其理论的成就和不足,以期对公平理论的研究和实践提供参考。     

Water balance and irrigation performance analysis: La Violada irrigation district (Spain) as a case study

Diagnosis of water management at the irrigation district level is required for the rational modernisation of the irrigation schemes and the subsequent increase in the efficiency of water allocation and application. Our objectives were to: (i) evaluate the global irrigation performance in the 5282 ha La Violada surface-irrigated district (Ebro River Basin, northeast Spain), and (ii) estimate the water that could potentially be conserved under two scenarios of modernisation and three increased irrigation efficiencies. The main district’s water inputs and outputs were measured (irrigation, precipitation, and outflow surface drainage) or estimated (canal releases, lateral surface runoff, municipal wastewaters, and actual evapotranspiration of crops) during the 1995–1998 hydrological years. The annual average water outputs were 23% higher than the corresponding water inputs, presumably due to canal seepage and lateral groundwater inflows from the 14 355 ha dry-land watershed. The district-level irrigation performance was poor (mean 1995–1998 seasonal irrigation consumptive use coefficient (ICUC)=48%), due to the low distribution (DE) and on-farm (ICUCf) efficiencies (i.e., mean estimates of 83% (DE) and 61% (ICUCf) for the 1995–1996 irrigation seasons). Thus, despite the high volume of applied irrigation water, the actual district ET was 16% lower than the maximum achievable ET, indicating that the water-stressed crops yielded below their maximums. Potential reductions in water allocation were estimated for three ICUC values (65, 75 and 85%) and two scenarios of modernisation (I and II). In scenario I, where the aim was to achieve maximum ET and crop yields, water allocation could be reduced from 8 to 30% of the current allocation. In scenario II, where the aim was to achieve the maximum conservation of water under the actual ET and crop yields, reductions in water allocation would be much higher (from 26 to 43% of current allocation). Thus, significant volumes of water could be conserved in the rehabilitation of this 50-year-old district by increasing the distribution efficiency and, in particular, the on-farm irrigation efficiency.     

Water and salt balance at irrigation scheme scale: A comprehensive approach for salinity assessment in a Saharan oasis

Salt balance methods are generally applied in the root-zone and at local scales but do not provide relevant information for salinity management at irrigation scheme scales, where there are methodological impediments. A simple salt balance model was developed at irrigation scheme and yearly time scales and applied in Fatnassa oasis (Nefzaoua, Tunisia). It accounts for input by irrigation, export by drainage and groundwater flow, and provides novel computation of the influence of biogeochemical processes and variations in the resident amount of salt for each chemical component in the soil and shallow groundwater. Impediments were overcome by limiting the depth of the system so that the resident amount of salt that remained was of the same order of magnitude as salt inputs and allowed indirect and reliable estimation of groundwater flow. Sensitivity analyses as partial derivatives of groundwater salinity were carried out according to non-reactive salt balance under steady-state assumption. These analyses enabled the magnitude of the salinization process to be foreseen as a function of hydrological changes linked to irrigation, drainage, groundwater flow and extension of the irrigated area. From a salt input of 39 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ by irrigation, 21 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ (54%) and 10 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ (26%) were exported by groundwater flow and drainage, respectively. 7 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ (18%) were removed from groundwater by geochemical processes, while a non-significant 2 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ were estimated to have been stored in the soil and shallow groundwater where the residence time was only 2.7 years. The leaching efficiency of drainage was estimated at 0.77. With a water supply of 1360 mm by irrigation and 90 mm by rainfall, drainage, groundwater flow and actual evapotranspiration were 130, 230, and 1090 mm, respectively. The current extension of date palm plantations and salinization of groundwater resources are expected to significantly increase the salinity hazard while the degradation of the drainage system is expected to be of lesser impact. The approach was successfully implemented in Fatnassa oasis and proved to be particularly relevant in small or medium irrigation schemes where groundwater fluxes are significant.