Effect of host plants on life-history traits of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spodoptera exigua</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Host plants play an important role in population increases and outbreaks of cosmopolitan polyphagous insect pest, such as Spodoptera exigua (Hübner; Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). We investigated the impact of various host plants (cauliflower, peas, and wheat) on fitness and relative growth rate of S. exigua and intrinsic rate of population increase. The S. exigua population was collected from cauliflower fields from Multan, Pakistan. Comparison of various life-history traits on three different host plants revealed significant differences that might be correlated with the fitness costs. The mean number of eggs laid by female reared on cauliflower was significantly greater than on peas or wheat. Similarly, eggs viability, intrinsic rate of population increase, adult eclosion, and adult’s longevity were significantly higher on cauliflower than on peas and wheat. The low survival on peas and wheat suggest the unsuitability of these host plants, while the higher pupal weight on cauliflower suggest that it provides better food quality to S. exigua compared with peas and wheat. On peas and wheat, fitness declined with each generation suggesting that the average fitness of individuals may decline due to the elimination of insects with higher fitness. Our results suggest that cauliflower was the most nutritive and preferred host plant. Such results could be useful to design cultural management strategies, which may include trap cropping.     

Different population performances of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Frankliniella occidentalis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thrips hawaiiensis</Emphasis> on flowers of two horticultural plants

Gardenia jasminoides and Rosa chinensis are economically important horticultural plants in China. Frankliniella occidentalis and Thrips hawaiiensis are serious coexisting pests that previously demonstrated opposite population trends on G. jasminoides and R. chinensis flowers. To further study the different performances between F. occidentalis and T. hawaiiensis, we investigated their population dynamics in the field (for 5 years) and their life history characteristics on the two flowers in the laboratory. In the field, the density of F. occidentalis was lower than that of T. hawaiiensis on G. jasminoides but was higher than that of T. hawaiiensis on R. chinensis. Under laboratory conditions, F. occidentalis showed significantly slower development, and lower survival and fecundity levels than T. hawaiiensis on G. jasminoides, but the opposite was true on R. chinensis. Significant differences in the net reproductive rate (R ₀) between F. occidentalis and T. hawaiiensis were observed, with respective values of 38.66 ± 2.85 and 47.91 ± 2.70 on G. jasminoides, and 55.64 ± 2.15 and 32.45 ± 2.16 on R. chinensis. The intrinsic rates of increase (r _m ) of F. occidentalis and T. hawaiiensis were 0.156 ± 0.008 and 0.198 ± 0.007, respectively, on G. jasminoides, and 0.172 ± 0.003 and 0.165 ± 0.002, respectively, on R. chinensis. Thus, the performances of both thrips with respect to population size in the laboratory were in accordance with those in the field, suggesting that the innate capacity for insect population increases may directly impact their population dynamics in fields. Thus, the population performance of different thrips species on flowers is species-dependent, which could be exploited in thrips control programs by breeding pest-resistant cultivars.     

Aboveground biomass equations for individual trees of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptomeria japonica</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaecyparis obtusa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix kaempferi</Emphasis> in Japan

Generic equations are proposed for stem, branch and foliage biomass of individual trees in even-aged pure stands of Cryptomeria japonica, Chamaecyparis obtusa and Larix kaempferi. Biomass data was collected from a total of 1,016 individual trees from 247 stands throughout Japan, and five regression models were assessed by root mean square error, mean bias, fit index (FI), and AIC. The results show that a power equation using diameter at breast height (dbh) and height is the most suitable for all species and components. This equation is more accurate than the familiar power equation that uses ‘dbh² height’, and it expresses the greater volume of branch and foliage mass of trees with a lower height/diameter ratio. A power equation using dbh is more reasonable for models with dbh as the only independent variable and more accurate than a power equation using ‘dbh² height’ for estimating branch and foliage mass. Estimating error for branch and foliage mass is larger than that for stem mass, but the entire aboveground biomass can be estimated with an error of less than 19%, except in the case of small trees with dbh less than 10 cm.     

Larval cannibalism and fitness in the stored grain weevils <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sitophilus granarius</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sitophilus zeamais</Emphasis>

Resource limitation is an important determinant of life history and behavior while mediating competition and reproduction among organisms. Discreet and closed systems such as grain kernels and seeds impose drastic restrictions to grain beetles that spend their immature stages within a single kernel selected by their mother. This is the case of internally feeding stored grain beetles, such as the grain weevils. Female egg-laying decisions and larval competition largely determine resource limitation for such insects where clustered egg distribution and contest competition with larval interference and cannibalism take place. As the clustered eggs within a grain lead to larval competition and conspecific weevil larvae face each other off during development allowing the emergence of one or two larvae per kernel, we hypothesized that such competition and consequent cannibalism will have fitness consequences for the competing individuals and their offspring. Thus, larvae of the granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius L.) and the maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais Motsch.) were subjected to larval competition with cannibalism, and lack of it, to assess the potential fitness consequence of cannibalism on these non-carnivorous pest species of stored grains. Larval cannibalism reduced developmental time of maize weevil, but not of granary weevil. However, such condition led to heavier adult weevils of both species exhibiting higher reproductive output generating more and better quality progeny than non-cannibal weevils. These findings indicate direct nutritional benefits of cannibalism to grain weevils favoring their status of key pest species of stored cereal grains.     

Influence of five host plants of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphis gossypii</Emphasis> Glover on some population parameters of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hippodamia variegata</Emphasis> (Goeze)

The aphidophagous ladybird beetle, Hippodamia variegata (Goeze), is an important predator in many agricultural ecosystems. However, information on the influence of the prey’s host plant species on its life history characteristics is still absent in the literature. Therefore, five host plant species of Aphis gossypii Glover, viz. Cucumis sativus L., Cucurbita pepo var. medullosa L., Cucurbita moschata var. melonaeformis Poiret, Cucumis melo var. cantalupensis L. and Lagenaria siceraria var. gourda Standl., were selected to study the influence of the prey’s host plant species on the development, survival, reproduction and life table parameters of H. variegata in the laboratory at 25°C. The results showed that all of A. gossypii from five host plant species used were acceptable for the growth, development and reproduction of H. variegata. However, the suitability of aphids from various host plants was different for this ladybird beetle. The complete pre-imaginal development was longest (14.51 ± 0.17 days) when reared with aphids on C. melo var. cantalupensis and shortest (12.60 ± 0.11 days) on L. siceraria var. gourda. Total immature survival from egg to adult was highest (58.97%) on L. siceraria var. gourda and lowest (44.06%) on C. melo var. cantalupensis. Based on the intrinsic rate of increase as an index of suitability of prey host plant species on the population increase of H. variegata, the suitability in decreasing order was: L. siceraria var. gourda > C. moschata var. melonaeformis > C. pepo var. medullosa > C. melo var. cantalupensis > C. sativus. This study offered opportunities for better understanding the tritrophic interactions of the plant–aphid–predator relationship.     

Cellulase in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anoplophora glabripennis</Emphasis> adults fed on original host tree species and non-original host trees

Cellulase activities of Anoplophora glabripennis (Motsch.) adults from two host plants (Populus simonii × P.pyramidliscr cv.Opera Hsu.and Salix matsudana Koidz) fed on three different host tree species (Acer negundo Linn.,S.matsudana Koidz and P.simonii × P.pyramidliscr cv.Opera Hsu.) were investigated.Enzyme activities of endoglucanase and β-glucosidase in the intestines of the insects were measured.The results show that there are no statistically significant differences in the enzyme activities of endoglu...     

Successful <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus tomentosa</Emphasis> with apple <Emphasis Type="Italic">SPDS</Emphasis> gene

The problem of salinized soils has become one of the most serious constraints to agricultural and forest productivity. With the purpose of enhancing salt stress tolerance of Populus tomentosa, we transformed this tree species with spermidine synthase （SPDS） genes derived from an apple by an Agrobacterium-mediated method. Four transgenic clones were confu＇med by PCR and Southern blot analysis. As well, the expression of introduced SPDS genes was analyzed by real-time quantitative PCR.     

Variation in the host preferences and responses of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ascia monuste orseis</Emphasis> Godart (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) to cultivars of collard greens <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica oleracea</Emphasis> (L.) var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">acephala</Emphasis>

This work evaluated the preference of Ascia monuste orseis among 29 cultivars of collard greens through free- and no-choice assays using female adults (attractiveness and oviposition) and third-instar larvae (feeding preference), in both laboratory and greenhouse conditions. In free-choice tests with female adults, the L, V, Y, H, A, and Z cultivars produced oviposition non-preference in butterflies. Cultivars R, P, C, and D produced feeding non-preference in third-instar larvae of A. monuste orseis in free- and no-choice tests. Our findings may be useful for genetic improvement focusing on the development of B. oleracea var. acephala cultivars resistant to A. monuste orseis.     

Modelling stemflow production by juvenile lodgepole pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus contorta</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">latifolia</Emphasis>) trees

Stemflow is a focused point source input of precipitation and nutrients at the base of a tree or plant and can have a significant impact on site hydrology. To date, no known studies have modelled stemflow production for juvenile lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia). Meteorological conditions, tree characteristics, and stemflow were sampled for two juvenile lodgepole pine stands over the course of the 2009 growing season. Step-wise multiple regression was used to assess which meteorological and tree architecture variables influenced stemflow production for each research plot. Once predictor variables were identified, models were produced for each stand and a generic model was produced that applied to both plots. A model employing precipitation depth and crown projection area successfully explained 71.3% of the variation in stemflow production from sampled trees. Stemflow was found to represent 1.8% of the study period rainfall and, although not a large component of the plot-scale canopy water balance, it is an order of magnitude greater than the fractioning of stemflow from mature lodgepole and lodgepole pine dominated forest. Additionally, stemflow funnelling ratios were found to average 22.2 and 24.3 from the two sample plots over the study period with a single tree, single event maximum of 111.7 recorded for a tree with a 3.3 cm bole diameter and a rain depth of 17.4 mm.     

Root architecture might account for contrasting establishment success of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudotsuga menziesii</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">menziesii</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> in Central Europe under dry conditions

Key message

Pinus sylvestris seedlings quickly expand their roots to deeper soil layers while Pseudotsuga menziesii concentrates its root system in the topsoil, thereby running the risk of desiccation during long dry spells, as indicated by lower survival after simulated summer drought.

Context

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir) is regarded as a promising species to maintain the productivity of Central European lowland forests given the projected increase of long dry spells.

Aims

Will the species be able to regenerate from seed and spread outside plantations in a drier temperate Europe?

Methods

We measured the relative growth rate, biomass allocation, root architecture, and phenotypic plasticity of Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings sown in a common garden and grown under current precipitation and prolonged drought, respectively. The species’ competitive ability with respect to Pinus sylvestris L., the most drought-tolerant native conifer in Central Europe, was assessed during three growing seasons.

Results

Pinus sylvestris seedlings had higher relative growth rates than did Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings, first in terms of aboveground biomass and later in terms of shoot height. This resulted in heavier and taller seedlings after three growing seasons under both moist and dry conditions. Shorter vertical roots corresponded with lower survival of Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings under dry conditions.

Conclusion

Fast root proliferation allows Pinus sylvestris seedlings to reach deeper water pools that are less rapidly depleted during transient drought. By contrast, the shallow root system might put Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings at the risk of desiccation during prolonged dry spells.

     

Ring characteristics and screw withdrawal resistance of naturally regenerated <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaecyparis obtusa</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">formosana</Emphasis> trees

The ring characteristics and screw withdrawal resistance (SWR) of naturally regenerated Taiwan yellow cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana) trees were explored. Significant differences in average ring width (RW), earlywood width, latewood width, ring density (RD), earlywood density (ED), latewood density (LD), highest density (D_max), lowest density (D_min), latewood percentage (LWP), and SWR were observed between trees, rings (SWR excluded), and tree height positions. The RW components in the radial direction increased from the pith outward to about the 3rd to 5th ring and then decreased to about the 25th ring; it was almost constantly sustained toward the bark side. The RD in the radial direction slowly decreased from the pith outward to the bark side. Average ring width and ring density were significantly affected by the various tree growth rates, radial ring numbers, and tree height positions. ED, LD, D_max, D_min, and LWP were the most important factors determining the overall RD. RW did not correlate with tree RD. SWR is correlated with ED, RD, D_min, LWP, and intra-ring density variation (IDV). Thus, the SWR can be used to predict wood density and in nondestructive evaluation of a living tree.     

Long-term growth performance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cordia africana</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Grevillea robusta</Emphasis> trees in the Mount Kenya region

This study examined the long-term growth performance of Cordia africana and Grevillea robusta, which are the most common indigenous and exotic trees, respectively, associated with crops in the Mount Kenya region. Local farmers prefer G. robusta to C. africana as on-farm trees because they believe that G. robusta grows faster. Measurements of height and diameter at breast height were made of 47 C. africana and 89 G. robusta trees for which the age was established based on interviews with farmers. The oldest G. robusta and C. africana trees were 55 and 46 years old, respectively. The apical growth rate for G. robusta was greater than that for C. africana in Katheri (a humid area). The differences between the two species were less remarkable in Ruiri (a dry-subhumid area). There was no notable difference in the radial growth performance of the two species in Katheri and Ruiri. These comparisons suggest that the long-term growth performance of C. africana is not necessarily inferior to that of G. robusta.     

Insecticidal properties of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thymus persicus</Emphasis> essential oil against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tribolium castaneum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sitophilus oryzae</Emphasis>

Red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae (L.) are considered to be the major insect pests in storage. Essential oils from aromatic plants are recognized as proper alternatives to fumigants. Thymus persicus (Ronniger ex Rech. f.) is one of these plants that have medicinal properties and is indigenous to Iran. The essential oil was obtained from aerial parts of the plant and analyzed by GC and GC–MS. Carvacrol (44.69%) and thymol (11.05%) were the major constituents of the oil extracted. In this experiment, fumigant toxicity of the essential oil was studied against T. castaneum, S. oryzae at 27 ± 1°C and 60 ± 5% RH in dark condition. The adult insects were exposed to the concentrations of 51.9, 111.1, 207.4 and 370.4 μl/l air to estimate median lethal time (LT₅₀) values. The fumigant toxicity was increased in response to increased essential oil concentrations. The LT₅₀ values at the lowest and the highest concentrations tested were ranged from 28.09 to 13.47 h for T. castaneum, and 3.86 to 2.30 h for S. oryzae. It was found that S. oryzae adults were much more susceptible to the oil than T. castaneum. After 24 h of exposure, the LC₅₀ values (95% fiducial limit) for T. castaneum and S. oryzae were estimated to be 236.9 (186.27–292.81) and 3.34 (2.62–4.28) μl/l air, respectively. These results suggest that T. persicus essential oil merits further study as potential fumigant for the management of these stored-product insects.     

Attack and defense movements involved in the interaction of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spodoptera frugiperda</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helicoverpa zea</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) and the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) are among the main pests of maize. Both species exhibit cannibalistic behavior and quite often share the same feeding guild in maize (maize ears), which can result in several interspecific and intraspecific interactions. Paired interaction scenarios of intraspecific and interspecific larvae were assessed in arenas in the presence and absence of food to characterize movements resulting from interactions of these insects. There was a difference in the frequency of behavioral movements in all the interactions, except for S. frugiperda in the presence of food. Head touching and recoiling were the predominant movements in most of the interaction scenarios. Spodoptera frugiperda exhibited a predominance of defensive movements when competing against H. zea in the same instars. Cannibalism and predation occurred frequently in interactions involving 6th instar of H. zea against opponents in 4th instar. Larvae of H. zea show a higher aggressive movement than S. frugiperda. The larvae of S. frugiperda take advantage during the interactions, although they present more defensive movements compared to H. zea. This study provides relevant information regarding the interaction of these species and intraguild interaction, which might influence the population dynamics and the competitive displacement of pest species that share the same ecological niche.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bursaphelenchus mucronatus</Emphasis> (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) vectored by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Monochamus </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">urussovi</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in Hokkaido,Japan

Bursaphelenchus mucronatus Mamiya et Enda has been recovered for the first time from adults of the cerambycid beetle, Monochamus urussovi (Fischer), in Hokkaido, Japan. The nematode was also recovered from the inner bark of Picea jezoensis (Siebold et Zuccarini) Carrière and Abies sachalinensis (Fr Schmidt) Masters infested with M. urussovi larvae. PCR–RFLP analysis indicated that B. mucronatus in Hokkaido is the European type.     

Insecticidal efficacy of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Isaria farinosa</Emphasis> in different life stages of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pissodes punctatus</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The insecticidal activity of an entomopathogenic fungus, Isaria farinosa on pine bark-weevil (Pissodes punctatus) at different life stages underwent laboratory testing. Larvae, pupae and adults of Pissodes punctatus were exposed to a range of concentrations of fungal conidia in suspension for 5 s; mean mortality and LC₅₀ values were calculated. The results showed I. farinosa can effectively infect larvae, pupae and adult pine bark-weevils, and the highest mean mortalities at each life stage can exceed 88%. The mean mortalities increased with higher concentrations of I. farinosa. Larvae were most susceptible with LC₅₀ 1.2 × 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹ (15 days), pupae (30 days) exhibited the second largest effects, and adults (15 days) with LC₅₀ 1.72 × 10⁶ and 1.99 × 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹, respectively, at end of the experiments. This suggests that I. farinosa could be a potential bio-control agent against the pine bark-weevil.     

Toxic effects of annonaceous acetogenins from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Annona cherimolia</Emphasis> (Magnoliales: Annonaceae) on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spodoptera frugiperda</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Plants belonging to the family Annonaceae have been commonly described in traditional medicine as remedies against head lice, and for their insecticidal properties. Characteristic constituents from a few genera of these plants are the annonaceous acetogenins. Fourteen annonaceous acetogenins have been isolated from our Argentine collection of the seeds of A. cherimolia. We report herein the antifeedant and insecticidal effects of nine of those acetogenins on Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith). The acetogenin squamocin, one of the major constituents of the extract, displayed toxic effects on early larval instars when incorporated to the larval diet at a dose of 50 μg per g of diet. The remaining annonaceous acetogenins tested, itrabin, asimicin, neoanonin, cherimolin-1, cherimolin-2, almuñequin, motrilin, and tucumanin produced pupal mortality and adult malformations leading to death, when incorporated to the larval diet at the same dose. The evaluation of indices of food consumption, growth, and food utilization indicated that squamocin was the only tested acetogenin to produce significant decrease in the growth rate and to reduce the efficiency with which larvae converted ingested food into biomass. All the acetogenins produced more than 80% pupal mortality with no dependence on the position of the THF rings or the number and location of the OH groups.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vicia faba</Emphasis> plants respond to oviposition by invasive <Emphasis Type="Italic">Halyomorpha halys</Emphasis> activating direct defences against offspring

The invasive stink bug Halyomorpha halys is established in many European and American agro-ecosystems, where it causes severe crop losses. Potential control measures might include enhancement of plant defences. When attacked by herbivorous insects that oviposit on it, the plant may respond by priming direct defences, which might affect the development of future brood. Halyomorpha halys attacks numerous plant species in the invaded areas. Here, we investigated whether Vicia faba plants challenged by H. halys females can impair the development of its offspring through the activation of induced direct defences. We measured the weight and dimension of nymphs that developed on oviposition-experienced plants after 7 and 17 days from hatching. Nymphs that developed on oviposition-experienced plants weighed less compared to those that developed either on control plants or on plants solely subjected to H. halys feeding, and third instars showed shorter dimensions (tibia length). In addition, when oviposition-experienced plants were attacked by nymphs, higher and more rapid expression of two jasmonic acid-dependent genes (cysteine proteinase inhibitor gene and NAI1) was detected, possibly due to a mechanism of priming. Increased expression of the salicylic acid-responsive PR1 gene was also detected in egg-experienced plants, although the response was delayed compared to JA-dependent genes. Our results suggest that V. faba plants recognize H. halys oviposition as a warning signal and pre-activate defences against future nymphal herbivory.     

Side effects of selected insecticides on the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tuta absoluta</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) predators <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macrolophus pygmaeus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nesidiocoris tenuis</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Miridae)

Tuta absoluta is a pest native to South America that produces significant damage to tomato crops and was first detected in Europe in late 2006. Data obtained during 2008 from commercial tomato crops in which IPM was applied suggested that good pest control was possible through the combined action of the predatory mirid bugs Macrolophus pygmaeus and Nesidiocoris tenuis and the use of selective insecticides. The aim of our study was to evaluate the lethal and sublethal side effects of three of the insecticides most widely used to control T. absoluta on these predators: azadirachtin, spinosad and indoxacarb. Seven days after applying the treatment at the maximum recommended field rates, the mortality produced by indoxacarb ranged from 28% for nymphs of M. pygmaeus to 77% for females of N. tenuis and were significantly higher than those produced by azadirachtin, spinosad and the control (<13%). However, indoxacarb did not affect the number of descendants of females exposed to residues during the last days of their preimaginal development. In contrast, spinosad significantly reduced the offspring of M. pygmaeus and azadirachtin significantly reduced the offspring of N. tenuis females. The sublethal effects of azadirachtin and spinosad on predator reproduction should therefore not be ignored. This information could be useful when selecting the most appropriate insecticide to control T. absoluta in greenhouses and field crops in which M. pygmaeus and N. tenuis are used as biological control agents.     

NIR-spectroscopic investigation of foliage of ozone-stressed <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fagus sylvatica</Emphasis> trees

Near infrared (NIR) reflectance spectroscopy was tested as a fast method for characterizing the toxic effects of air pollution on trees. Fagus sylvatica was exposed to known, different levels of ozone during summer of 2003 in plant chambers. Leaves were taken from the plants and NIR spectra were recorded. In order to derive calibration models, reference analyses were carried out and soluble carbohydrates were determined by an enzymatic method. Minor components, like α-tocopherol, were measured after solvent extraction using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A partial least squares (PLS) algorithm was used to perform the chemometric analyses. Good or in some cases very good calibration statistics expressed in terms of root mean square error of cross validation and R² were obtained for glucose, fructose, sucrose, and α-tocopherol. In addition, a better than expected correlation between the NIR spectra of the leaves and the ozone concentration in the plant chambers was observed. NIR spectroscopy appears to be a very useful method to simultaneously determine many components in leaves that are related to the health of trees. It is obviously able to quantitatively describe the changing patterns of constituents in leaves of trees caused by toxic substances. Thus, NIR spectroscopy can be a very effective tool for environmental biomonitoring, especially for observation of forests.