The transmission and control of mastitis in dairy cows: a theoretical approach

A multi-species model that incorporates the transmission of both major and minor mastitis pathogens as well as the interaction between them via coinfection of a quarter is fitted to data from seven dairy herds. The results suggest that major and minor pathogens can interact, on occasion, in a counter-intuitive way with implications for the control of clinical mastitis. The key finding is that delaying culling of cows with major pathogen infections for more than 100 days post infection could result in a higher prevalence of major pathogen infections, whereas early culling would reduce the levels. A theoretical exploration of current and proposed control strategies is carried out, informed by parameters estimated from the model and data. The results at each stage suggest of areas of further research such as: field-testing of the hypotheses presented; the exploration of a stochastic formulation of the model; analysis of the raw repeated measures data; application of control theory to determine the most effective combination of control strategies; inclusion of economic factors into the modelling framework.     

Unusual history and initial clinical signs of Mycoplasma bovis mastitis and arthritis in first-lactation cows in a closed commercial dairy herd

CASE DESCRIPTION: 9 first-lactation dairy cows in a closed dairy herd had swelling in the forelimbs and forelimb lameness. Mycoplasmal arthritis and mastitis were diagnosed. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Swelling of the carpal joint, diffuse subcutaneous edema from the carpal to metacarpophalangeal joints, and forelimb lameness were evident in 9 first-lactation cows 7 to 21 days after parturition. Diagnostic testing revealed that 3 of 3 bulk-tank milk samples, 3 milk samples from cows with clinical mastitis, 2 fluid samples obtained from arthritic joints, and samples from the lungs and spleen of a cow that had died yielded positive results for Mycoplasma spp. Nucleic acid sequence analysis performed by use of a PCR assay on the joint fluid and lung tissues confirmed infection with Mycoplasma bovis. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Affected cows were treated by IM administration of flunixin meglumine and dexamethasone for 3 days. All cows were nonresponsive to treatment (3 cows died, and the other 6 were culled). Follow-up culture for Mycoplasma spp of milk samples from the bulk tank and from all lactating cows was recommended to screen for chronic subclinical carriers. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Mycoplasmal infections may cause unusual initial clinical signs or an atypical history. When dairy cattle, including those residing in closed herds, have lameness, swelling of the carpal or metacarpophalangeal joints, edema of the distal portions of the forelimbs, or polyarthritis, infection with Mycoplasma spp should be investigated. Delay in diagnosis of mycoplasmal infections in dairy herds can result in substantial financial loss and the establishment of chronic subclinical carriers.     

Clinical Mycoplasma bovis mastitis in prepubertal heifers on 2 dairy herds

Findings of herd investigations of heifers with prepubertal mastitis are presented. Mycoplasma bovis was isolated from lacteal secretions and tissue samples of necropsied heifers; the same strain infected dams and herd mates. Vertical transmission is suggested in this first report of intramammary infections of M. bovis in peripubertal heifers.     

Fatal mastitis of dairy cows: a retrospective study.

The necropsy records of dairy cows with mastitis were reviewed from the provincial veterinary laboratory in Guelph (44 cases of mastitis in nine years) and from the Ontario Veterinary College (168 cases in 14 years). Mastitis was considered to be the primary cause of death in 167 of 212 cows (79%). Of these 167 cases of mastitis, Escherichia coli was involved in 107 (64%), Klebsiella sp. in 12 (7%) and Staphylococcus aureus in 11 (7%). Bacteriology was not reported in 22 cases. Coliform mastitis, the most commonly identified type of fatal mastitis, was characterized histologically by the presence of infarcted areas in affected glands and by the lack of demonstrable bacteria, and was thus easily identified from fatal mastitis caused by S. aureus.     

The relationships between environmental parameters in livestock pen and physiological parameters of Holstein dairy cows

There has been an increase in temperature and the incidence of extreme weather events, such as heat wave, due to global warming, which has promoted the incidence of livestock diseases. Therefore, it is important to examine the effect of changes in environmental parameters on livestock performance. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between ambient environmental conditions in livestock pen and the physiological parameters of Holstein dairy cows. The results showed that there was a decrease in the red blood cell counts, hemoglobin concentrations, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration of the cows with increasing pen temperature, wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT), and temperature humidity index (THI). Additionally, high daily variation in temperature caused a decrease in the serum albumin levels of the cows. Moreover, the lowest serum calcium, inorganic phosphorus, and magnesium concentrations were observed in November, and were negatively correlated with the 24-hr temperature, WBGT, and THI range of the pen prior to sampling. Multiple regression analysis showed a positive correlation between serum cortisol concentration and 24-hr WBGT range of the pen prior to samplings and packed cell volume. However, serum cortisol and total protein concentrations were negatively correlated. Overall, the findings of the study suggest that large variation in temperature induced stress in the cows, which could be overcome by increased water consumption and improved protein digestion and absorption by the animals, and the addition of minerals, such as calcium to the diet.     

Mycoplasma mastitis: a review of transmission and control

The Mycoplasma sp. that cause mastitis are simple, cell wall-less, bacteria that can colonize and cause diseases in other extramammary sites in the bovine. Prevalence of mycoplasma mastitis appears to be increasing in many locations throughout the world. The best method to identify this group of pathogens is through direct culture on mycoplasma agar media. However, limitations with this culture procedure are the duration of culture, 10 days, special conditions required and thus added expense, and the lack of primary specificity to distinguish between true pathogens and commensal organisms. Thus culture of bulk tank milk samples has been advocated as a primary screening method to determine the mycoplasma status of a herd. This monitoring system is reasonably successful but the sensitivity of detection of Mycoplasma sp. in bulk tank milk is affected by a significant minority of cows that might shed the organism at levels below the threshold of detection. Contagious mastitis control procedures have been effective in controlling outbreaks of mycoplasma mastitis. Yet new methods of control might be warranted, methods that may prevent the outbreak. Current data suggests that a significant number of new outbreaks may occur via internal or animal-to-animal transmission of mycoplasma mastitis pathogens from asymptomatic carriers.     

Preliminary studies on the prevalence of Mycoplasma bovis mastitis in dairy in cattle in Australia

A highly sensitive and specific PCR (MB-PCR) was used in preliminary studies to detect M. bovis in milk samples to investigate its association with high somatic cell count (SCC), an indicator of subclinical mastitis and one of the factors in down grading the quality of milk. A total of 186 and 167 herds were tested with 43% and 62% of herds positive for M. bovis in Victoria and North Queensland, respectively. The quarter milks from 52 cows with persistently high SCC were tested by MB-PCR and culture to investigate the association of M. bovis with major mastitis pathogens (MMP). M. Bovis was detected in 77% of cows of which 19% alone had M. bovis without any other bacteria, 17% had M. bovis in combination with major mastitis pathogens and 40% had M. bovis in combination with non-major mastitis pathogens. We believe that M. bovis is widespread in dairy cattle and has the potential to produce disease alone or to predispose the udder to disease caused by major mastitis and environmental pathogens. These studies have revealed a hitherto unrecognised high prevalence of M. bovis in dairy cattle in North Queensland and Victoria in Australia. These initial studies also give a clear association between M. bovis and elevated somatic cell counts.     

奶牛乳房炎的治疗方法

奶牛乳房炎是乳腺受到物理、化学、微生物刺激所发生的一种炎性变化.本病以乳汁的理化性改变为主,由多种非特定的病原微生物引起,不仅影响产奶量、牛乳质量、延长产后发情和妊娠时间,严重时还能使奶牛泌乳机能丧失而被淘汰,是世界奶牛业的主要危害因素之一[1-3].笔者根据多年的治疗经验,总结如下.     

Application of an indirect ELISA to milk samples to identify cows with Mycoplasma bovis mastitis

An indirect ELISA was used to detect antibodies to Mycoplasma bovis in milk samples collected from a herd with M bovis mastitis. Antibodies were detected in samples from nine cows which had developed clinical M bovis mastitis. Milk from only three consistently antigen-negative cows tested positive for M bovis antibodies. These results indicate the potential value of the indirect ELISA for the detection of cows which have recently developed M bovis mastitis during the early stages of an outbreak.     

Mycoplasma bovis infections in Swiss dairy cattle: a clinical investigation

Mycoplasma bovis causes mastitis in dairy cows and is associated with pneumonia and polyarthritis in cattle. The present investigation included a retrospective case–control study to identify potential herd-level risk factors for M. bovis associated disease, and a prospective cohort study to evaluate the course of clinical disease in M. bovis infected dairy cattle herds in Switzerland. Eighteen herds with confirmed M. bovis cases were visited twice within an average interval of 75 d. One control herd with no history of clinical mycoplasmosis, matched for herd size, was randomly selected within a 10 km range for each case herd. Animal health data, production data, information on milking and feeding-management, housing and presence of potential stress- factors were collected. Composite quarter milk samples were aseptically collected from all lactating cows and 5% of all animals within each herd were sampled by nasal swabs. Organ samples of culled diseased cows were collected when logistically possible. All samples were analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In case herds, incidence risk of pneumonia, arthritis and clinical mastitis prior to the first visit and incidence rates of clinical mastitis and clinical pneumonia between the two visits was estimated. Logistic regression was used to identify potential herd-level risk factors for M. bovis infection. In case herds, incidence risk of M. bovis mastitis prior to the first visit ranged from 2 to 15%, whereas 2 to 35% of the cows suffered from clinical pneumonia within the 12 months prior to the first herd visit. The incidence rates of mycoplasmal mastitis and clinical pneumonia between the two herd visits were low in case herds (0–0.1 per animal year at risk and 0.1-0.6 per animal year at risk, respectively). In the retrospective-case-control study high mean milk production, appropriate stimulation until milk-let-down, fore-stripping, animal movements (cattle shows and trade), presence of stress-factors, and use of a specific brand of milking equipment, were identified as potential herd-level risk factors. The prospective cohort study revealed a decreased incidence of clinical disease within three months and prolonged colonization of the nasal cavity by M. bovis in young stock.     

Prototheca zopfii mastitis in a herd of dairy cows

Mastitis caused by the colourless alga Prototheca zopfii was diagnosed in 17 of 120 cows in a dairy herd. Infection occurred in animals varying from 3-14 years old and was present in one to four quarters of each cow. Nine cases were associated with clinical mastitis characterised by the presence in milk of flakes or small clots. Somatic cell counts consistent with subclinical mastitis (>500 x 10(3) cells/ml) were recorded in five of the eight remaining cows. Histological examination of udder tissue showed the presence of granulomatous lesions associated with the presence of Prototheca. The problem was identified and controlled by repeated microbiological examination of milk samples from all lactating cows and immediate culling of infected animals. P. zopfii was also recovered from environmental water samples on this farm. It is suggested that infection may have occurred as a result of teat sores caused by trauma from a milking machine, and the tendency for cows to lay down on a race, the surface of which was sometimes flooded by drain water in which Prototheca were present.     

Prototheca zopfii mastitis in a herd of dairy cows

Mastitis caused by the colourless alga Prototheca zopfii was diagnosed in 17 of 120 cows in a dairy herd. Infection occurred in animals varying from 3–14 years old and was present in one to four quarters of each cow.

Nine cases were associated with clinical mastitis characterised by the presence in milk of flakes or small clots. Somatic cell counts consistent with subclinical mastitis (>500 × 10³ cells/ml) were recorded in five of the eight remaining cows.

Histological examination of udder tissue showed the presence of granulomatous lesions associated with the presence of Prototheca.

The problem was identified and controlled by repeated microbiological examination of milk samples from all lactating cows and immediate culling of infected animals.

P. zopfii was also recovered from environmental water samples on this farm. It is suggested that infection may have occurred as a result of teat sores caused by trauma from a milking machine, and the tendency for cows to lay down on a race, the surface of which was sometimes flooded by drain water in which Prototheca were present.     

A hospital-based study of the relationship between retained placenta and mastitis in dairy cows

We investigated the relation between retained placenta and mastitis in Holstein dairy cows admitted to the New York State College of Veterinary Medicine. Cows with retained placenta were three times more likely to develop mastitis during hospitalization than animals without retained placenta. Since the hospital population was not representative of the general population, the possibility of a bias existed; a large bias was not likely because most distorting variables occurred equally in animals both with and without retained placenta. The literature suggests that the relationship between retained placenta and mastitis may be mediated through activity of the peripheral leukocytes. Further research is necessary to test this hypothesis.     

Clinical picture of experimental Mycoplasma bovis mastitis in cattle

Experimental intracisternal infection, using mycoplasma bovis strains, proved to cause typical mastitis of grave severity. The clinical pattern was in conformity with published findings. Testing of mycoplasma strains for their pathogenicity to cattle udder during lactation was found to be an adequate approach to elucidating the importance of mycoplasma species isolated from cattle herds.     

Efficacy of extended intramammary ceftiofur therapy against mild to moderate clinical mastitis in Holstein dairy cows: A randomized clinical trial

Few studies have investigated the efficacy of extended ceftiofur therapy and none have focused on extended therapy for naturally occurring clinical mastitis. The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of extended intramammary ceftiofur therapy of 8 d duration with a standard 2-day regimen for the treatment of naturally occurring mild to moderate clinical mastitis in lactating dairy cows. Holstein cows from 22 dairy herds (n = 241) were randomly allocated to the 2 treatment groups. For each case of mastitis, 125 mg of ceftiofur hydrochloride was administered intramammary once a day for 2 or 8 d. Clinical cure, 21 d after the last treatment, was 89% (98/110) in each group. Bacteriological cure 21 d after the last treatment for the 2- and 8-day regimens were 32% (15/47) and 61% (25/41), respectively, for all bacteria (P = 0.007), 64% (9/14) and 82% (9/11), respectively, for streptococci (P = 0.50), and 0% (0/20) and 47% (9/19), respectively, for Staphylococcus aureus (P = 0.0004). There were no statistical differences between groups for new intramammary infections. Overall, ceftiofur extended therapy increased cure when compared to a 2-day regimen for the treatment of naturally occurring mild to moderate clinical mastitis in lactating dairy cows.     

Incidence of infertility in dairy cows

The incidence of anoestrus, suboestrus, delayed ovulation, cystic ovaries, repeat breeder cows, endometritis and other forms of infertility was studied in 283 herds over a period of eight years (2,304 cases). The total incidence of infertility (0.111 cases per cow per year) varied significantly from year to year. The peak of the seasonal variation occurred in December-April and did not correspond with the seasonal variation in calving. Both the size of herd and the type of housing affected the incidence of infertility, but the differences were great in respect of the various diagnoses. The incidence of ketosis by herd correlated significantly with the incidence of infertility by herd.     

Incidence of lameness in dairy cows

A survey of the number of treatments for lameness in 21,000 dairy cows from 185 herds in the University of Edinburgh/Dalgety Spillers dairy herd health and productivity service in England and Wales showed an average incidence of cases of 25 per cent. Veterinary surgeons treated 6.3 per cent and farmers 18.7 per cent and 1.4 per cent of cows were culled because of lameness. Monthly and regional variations were recorded. An assessment of the economic effects suggested that the average annual cost in a 100 cow herd was 1175 pounds with an overall cost to British farmers of more than 35 million pounds. The economic importance is such that research into specific factors affecting foot health should be carried out. Meanwhile, a broad approach to prevention and control of lameness on farms is recommended under the general headings of management/environment, nutrition and breeding.     

Automated detection of estrus and mastitis in dairy cows

The development and test of detection models for oestrus and mastitis in dairy cows is described in a PhD thesis that was defended in Wageningen on June 5, 2000. These models were based on sensors for milk yield, milk temperature, electrical conductivity of milk, and cow activity and concentrate intake, and on combined processing of the sensor data. The models alert farmers to cows that need attention, because of possible oestrus or mastitis. A first detection model for cows, milked twice a day, was based on time series models for the sensor variables. A time series model describes the dependence between successive observations. The parameters of the time series models were fitted on-line for each cow after each milking by means of a Kalman filter, a mathematical method to estimate the state of a system on-line. The Kalman filter gives the best estimate of the current state of a system based on all preceding observations. This model was tested for 2 years on two experimental farms, and under field conditions on four farms over several years. A second detection model, for cow milked in an automatic milking system (AMS), was based on a generalization of the first model. Two data sets (one small, one large) were used for testing. The results for oestrus detection were good for both models. The results for mastitis detection were varying (in some cases good, in other cases moderate). Fuzzy logic was used to classify mastitis and oestrus alerts with both detection models, to reduce the number of false positive alerts. Fuzzy logic makes approximate reasoning possible, where statements can be partly true or false. Input for the fuzzy logic model were alerts from the detection models and additional information. The number of false positive alerts decreased considerably, while the number of detected cases remained at the same level. These models make automated detection possible in practice.