土壤多样性:土壤地理学研究的契机

介绍了土壤多样性研究的起源、概念及学科意义,在此基础上系统论述了土壤多样性在国内外的主要研究进展和取得的主要成果,并对未来的应用前景进行了展望。首先,生物多样性的保护是以土壤多样性为基础的,保护土壤多样性意义重大,而事实证明广泛应用于生物学中的计量方法同样适用于土壤地理学和土壤资源有关研究中;其次,有关国家已经在土壤多样性的测度方法及其在土壤资源空间表达中作了很多尝试,诸多案例为土壤地理学研究提供了新的角度;最后,新近研究及发展方向主要集中在土壤多样性与土地利用多样性、土地利用类型(耕地、水体、植被等)多样性的关联分析中,已经取得显著进展。这一研究领域日趋活跃,将在土壤地理学及土壤资源相关研究中扮演重要角色并呈现良好的发展前景。     

Challenges of pedodiversity in soil science

Soil diversity is not a completely new concept in soil science. It has been discussed from early times but it was not challenged this much broad. Ibañez with introducing the pedodiversity opened a new conceptual window to ease the induction of the soils complexity, spatial and temporal evolution and distribution. Pedodiversity now attracts more attention and goes to open new windows in soil science. Pedodiversity faces now with different challenges, which could be critical in its way on. Do the current soil diversity indices conceptually define all aspects of soil variability, or do we need to bind them with other characteristics like taxonomic distances? How is the soil individualism defined within the context of spatial variability and soil continuum? How are pedocomplexity, connectance, pedodiversity and soil spatial structure related? Can the changes of soil diversity be accounted as the rate of soil development? Can a range of pedodiversity index be a scale for soil series definition? Initial and some of current pedodiversity studies were/are focused on the concepts and measurement of pedodiversity and soil complexity indices of soilscape compared with the biological diversity and complexity. However, for the pedogenetic studies, the most important issues are the evolutionary concerns out of this approach compared with the other biotic systems. The new contexts, which should be more undertaken in future studies are: functional diversity, temporal diversity, study of soil and landform extinction and preservation. The last question could be: how pedodiversity could be changed under different understanding levels? A case study has been carried out in Charmahal and Bakhtiary province, Iran. Its objectives are the following: comparing the pedodiversity indices combined with and without taxonomic distances within tow replication of a geomorphic surface (Pi 111). What the pedodiversity says here? Did the unique calcification process which rules the soil formation here result in endemism or soil zonality? Do different pedodiversity indices correlate with the soil patterns?     

重庆岩溶地区不同土壤类型的土地利用多样性分析

以重庆岩溶地区为例，探讨岩溶地区土壤类型的多样性与不同土壤类型上土地利用方式的多样性。结果表明重庆市岩溶区黄壤、石灰土和黄棕壤是本区主要土壤类型，土壤景观的多样化和空间异质化程度不高，但各类景观分布比例不均匀，土壤景观嵌块体呈现出复杂的几何形状。除了山地草甸土以林地和草地、棕壤以林地为主要景观外，另外的9种土壤类型上都是以耕地和林地为主要的景观，农、林用地在景观空间格局的结构和功能中起主导作用。由于各类土壤性质和分布特点的不同，耕地和林地在各类土壤上的分配比例存在着明显的差异，以及人类活动使得耕地的嵌块体数急剧增多和居民工矿用地、林地、未利用地的嵌块体数目增加。     

河南省多级地貌特征及与土壤多样性的关系

从土壤多样性向地多样性发展符合土壤地理学的研究趋势,选择河南省作为研究区,将地貌这一主要的地学要素加入到土壤多样性的研究中,并用改进的仙农熵公式对多级地貌空间分布多样性及其与土壤多样性的相关性进行探讨。首先,对河南省1︰175万地貌类型图进行矢量化得到地貌类型等级系统;然后,对地貌和土壤的构成组分多样性和2种不同分类体系的分支率进行计算并分析其特征;最后,在3 km×3 km网格尺度下分析地貌和土壤多样性间的相关性。研究表明:河南省共有3个一级地貌,12个二级地貌和37个三级地貌;随着土壤和地貌分类的等级细化,其分类个数和构成组分多样性值均呈上升趋势,即土壤和地貌所有分类单元在数量构成上的均匀程度越来越高;两种分类系统中,土壤分类较地貌分类有更详细的分类体系,且分支率有较大范围的变化;河南省一级地貌、二级地貌和三级地貌的空间分布多样性值和面积值均最大的类型分别是流水地貌、冲积平原和泛滥平坦地,是不同级别的优势地貌类型;一级地貌类型与土类、亚类和土属多样性间存在紧密的相关关系,且以流水地貌与土壤多样性间的相关性最强。     

土壤多样性研究进展

土壤多样性研究是土壤学、土壤地理学与生态学相结合的一个新领域,它吸收了生物多样性的研究方法。本文在总结当前国内外相关研究的基础上,阐述了土壤多样性的概念,并对土壤多样性的相关研究方法,如生物多样性测度方法、多度分布模型方法及种—面积关系法、嵌套子集方法和分形理论方法等的应用实践进行了归纳。最后介绍了我国当前土壤多样性的研究现状,指出土地利用变化的研究为土壤多样性驱动因子的研究开辟新的路径。     

Quantitative assessment of pedodiversity and soil erosion within a karst sinkhole in the dry steppe subzone

A detailed study of the soil cover of a sinkhole (300 m²) in the dry steppe landscape of the Bogdinsk–Baskunchak Natural Reserve in Astrakhan oblast has been performed, and the factors of its differentiation have been analyzed. The indices of pedodiversity have been calculated and compared for karst sinkholes in the dry steppe and northern taiga landscapes. Quantitative parameters of the lateral migration of solid soil substances on the slopes of the sinkhole have been determined. The rate of soil erosion decreases from the slope of southern aspect to the slopes of western, northern, and eastern aspects. On the average, it is estimated at 0.4 mm/yr. The average rate of accumulation of solid substances on the lower parts of the slopes and in the bottom of the sinkhole reaches 0.74 mm/yr. A comparative analysis of the soil properties attests to their dependence on the particular position of a given soil within the sinkhole. Downward the slopes of the sinkhole, full-profile brown arid soils (Cambic Calcisols) are replaced by sierozem-like soils (Haplic Calcisols), light-humus poorly developed soils (Luvisols), lithozems (Leptosols), and stratified soils (stratozems, or Colluvic Regosols). The soils within the upper ring-shape soil microzone are more diverse and contrasting with respect to their morphological, physical, chemical, and physicochemical properties. The degree of soil contrasts decreases down the slopes of the sinkhole towards its bottom. The studied sinkhole is characterized by considerable pedodiversity. Quantitative parameters of pedodiversity for the sinkhole in the dry steppe zone are higher than those form the sinkholes in the northern taiga zone.     

郑州市土壤多样性和土地利用多样性研究及关联分析

以郑州市为研究对象,将多样性理论及其测度方法应用于土壤和土地利用多样性研究.选取2004年和2009年两个时期的TM影像进行土地利用分类,并基于第二次土壤普查的郑州市土壤矢量数据,对郑州市土壤和土地利用的组成分布多样性和空间分布多样性进行了初步分析和定量化研究,探索了土壤和土地利用之间的关联性。结果表明:郑州市土壤构成组分较为复杂,其组成分布多样性指数取值0.776,土地利用组成分布多样性指数由2004年的0.610增加为2009年的0.651;郑州市同一土属或土地利用类型的空间分布多样性指数在不同网格尺度下存在相似的分异规律,其中空间分布最离散的土壤类型为砂土,空间分布最离散的土地利用类型为耕地;在3种空间网格尺度下,城镇建筑用地、农村居民点和工矿用地与各典型土壤的关联系数随研究时期推进均呈不同程度的增加趋势。     

Are There Arid Land Soilscapes in Southwestern Europe?

No studies have proven the existence of soil assemblages typical of arid lands in Europe. This study was carried out in a representative territory of the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, Almería province, which is the driest part of Europe, to determine if soils characteristic of arid lands are present. In order to analyse the spatial distribution of soils, the authors made use of mathematical tools previously developed in biodiversity and pedodiversity analysis, such as richness, entropy indices, abundance distribution models, diversity‐area relationships and nested subset analysis. The study demonstrates that the soil types or pedotaxa are typical of mountainous arid lands. Shallow and weakly developed soils (e.g. Leptosols, Regosols and Arenosols), Calcisols, Gypsisols and Solonchaks, cover most of the study area, and pedodiversity analysis demonstrates that the pedotaxa spatial patterns follow the same regularities as in other areas, environments and scales. In view of the fact that the class of landscapes identified in this study is unique in Europe, the Tarbernas desert and other arid lands sites of the study area merit preservation as part of the European geological, geomorphological and pedological heritage. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of habitat spatiotemporal structure on collembolan diversity

Landscape fragmentation is a major threat to biodiversity. It results in the transformation of continuous (hence large) habitat patches into isolated (hence smaller) patches, embedded in a matrix of another habitat type. Many populations are harmed by fragmentation because remnant patches do not fulfil their ecological and demographic requirements. In turn, this leads to a loss of biodiversity, especially if species have poor dispersal abilities. Moreover, landscape fragmentation is a dynamic process in which patches can be converted from one type of habitat to another. A recently created habitat might suffer from a reduced biodiversity because of the absence of adapted species that need a certain amount of time to colonize the new patch (e.g. direct meta-population effect). Thus landscape dynamics lead to complex habitat spatiotemporal structured, in which each patch is more or less continuous in space and time. In this study, we define habitat spatial structure as the degree to which a habitat is isolated from another habitat of the same kind and temporal structure as the time since the habitat is in place. Patches can also display reduced biodiversity because their spatial or temporal structures are correlated with habitat quality (e.g. indirect effects). We discriminated direct meta-community effects from indirect (habitat quality) effects of the spatiotemporal structure of habitats on biodiversity using Collembola as a model. We tested the relative importance of spatial and temporal structure of habitats for collembolan diversity, taking soil properties into account. In an agroforested landscape, we set up a sampling design comprised of two types of habitats (agriculture versus forest), a gradient of habitat isolation (three isolation classes) and two contrasting ages of habitats. Our results showed that habitat temporal structure is a key factor shaping collembolan diversity. A reduced diversity was detected in recent habitats, especially in forests. Interactions between temporal continuity and habitat quality were also detected by taking into account soil properties: diversity increased with soil carbon content, especially in old forests. Negative effects of habitat age on diversity were stronger in isolated patches. We conclude that habitat temporal structure is a key factor shaping collembolan diversity, while direction and amplitude of its effect depend on land use type and spatial isolation.     

市域尺度的稀有濒危土壤类型的界定与评价——以郑州市为例

在当今世界城市化高速发展的背景下,土壤资源的保护也越来越受到人们的关注,土壤多样性骤减也成为了全球关注的焦点,界定和评价稀有濒危土壤对于保护土壤资源及其多样性具有非常重要的指导意义。本文以郑州市为例,应用土壤类型密度和土壤多样性两种多样性测度方法分别对郑州市1 km×1 km和5 km×5 km网格尺度下基于不同分类级别的土壤空间多样性分布格局进行了分析和定量化研究;利用1988、2001、2007和2013年4期遥感资料进行土地利用分类,结合基于第二次土壤普查的1∶20万郑州市土壤图,采用多时相连续对比法对郑州市近25年来土地利用变化对土壤的扰动情况进行了分析;结合土壤多样性方法和传统评价方法界定和评价了稀有濒危土壤。结果表明,郑州市土壤整体分布较为均匀,且随着分类单元级别的降低,构成组分多样性指数升高,即分类越细,土壤类型分布越均匀;1988~2013年郑州市土壤受到非农建设扰动剧烈,干扰比例为16.01%,随着时间的推移,土壤受扰动的速度是呈上升趋势的;稀有土属有16种,濒危土属有2种,稀有濒危土属有4种。截止2013年濒危土属整体受到扰动比例高达35.38%,而稀有土属受到扰动比例为8.76%。     

Comparative analysis of the soil cover diversity in floodplain areas of the Partizanskaya River valley (Sikhote-Alin Mountains)

The regularities of the soil cover formation and pattern in the Partizanskaya River valley (Sikhote-Alin Mountains) were revealed. The diversity of the soil cover was shown to depend on the landscape hydrological zone of the river basin, the structure of the floodplain, and the difference in flooding of the floodplain sections. The comparative assessment of the soil cover diversity using the Shannon index showed that, in the zone of accumulative landscapes, the soil cover diversity of the floodplain sections that were formed under the meandering of the river was higher than the diversity of the soil cover in the sections formed upon branching (furcation) of the channel. The maximum values of the Shannon index and the maximum supply with water characterize the floodplain in the mouth zone of the valley with the most stable conditions of soil formation. The determination of the diversity index for the soil cover and water supply of the floodplain sections is expedient in planning the economic activities in the valley.     

Pedodiversity in mountainous tropical semideciduous forests of Sierra Madre del Sur,Mexico

We studied pedodiversity in mountainous tropical semideciduous forests at three key sites in Sierra Madre del Sur, Southern Mexico, at the altitudes from 600 to 1400 m a.s.l. Using detailed soil maps, we recorded the total number and the areas of soil delineations at each site, and calculated the pedodiversity indices. We found that pedodiversity increases with an increase in the absolute height within the zone of semideciduous forests, and interpreted this phenomenon as an evidence for a smaller development of erosion at higher altitudes. The areas of soil delineations reach their minimum within the intermediate part of this zone, because large delineations of strongly weathered clayey soils are developed at the higher altitudes, and large delineations of recent soils on strongly eroded surfaces are found at the lower altitudes. A conclusion about the need to take into account the particular composition of the soil cover upon the interpretation of pedodiversity data is made.     

Biodiversity, vegetation gradients and key biogeochemical processes in the heathland landscape

The northwest European heathland landscape with its characteristic communities of nutrient-poor and acidic soils has a high nature value, because of its locally high biodiversity and the distinct site conditions. In order to conserve and restore the heathlands, numerous rehabilitation projects have been performed, although with varying success. This is partly due to the fact that the key biogeochemical processes distinguishing the various vegetation types within the heathlands are not known in detail.Therefore, we performed a statistical survey on the main communities and their soil characteristics. In addition, we analyzed the data for key factors determining biodiversity in the heathland landscape.Data from previous studies and surveys was used to compile a dataset of 267 vegetation relevés (classified as EUNIS habitat types) with extensive soil measurements (22 parameters). A canonical discriminant analysis revealed that soil acidity explained most of the differences between the habitat types, while soil moisture content and soil fertility were less important. Acidity-related factors as Al³⁺, Al/Ca-ratio and pH were also strongly correlated to plant diversity in the majority of the habitat types, respectively, the species-rich Nardus grasslands, the Rhynchosporion communities and the species-rich Molinia meadows. In the dry heaths and over the total heathland landscape, plant diversity was negatively correlated with soil -concentrations. Only in wet heath, nutrient availability, in this case P, was the primary factor in explaining plant diversity.This study presents ranges for all major soil parameters for the studied well-developed heathland habitat types, thereby providing clear guidelines for conservation and restoration.     

Small-scale plant species richness and evenness in semi-natural grasslands respond differently to habitat fragmentation

The study explores whether small-scale species diversity, species evenness and species richness in semi-natural grassland communities are similarly associated with present management regime and/or present and historical landscape context (percentage of different land-cover types in the surroundings). Species diversity, evenness and richness were recorded within 441 50 × 50 cm grassland plots in 4.5 × 4.5 km agricultural landscape on Öland, Sweden. Recent and historical land-cover maps (years 2004, 1959, 1938, 1835, and 1800) were used to characterize the present and past landscape context of the sampled vegetation plots. Partial regression and simultaneous autoregressive models were used to explore the relationships between species diversity measures (Shannon diversity, richness and evenness) and different explanatory variables while accounting for spatial autocorrelation in the data. The results indicated that species richness was relatively sensitive to grassland isolation, while the response of species evenness to isolation was characterized by a degree of inertia. Because the richness and evenness components of species diversity may respond differently to habitat fragmentation, we suggest that monitoring projects and empirical studies that focus on changes in biodiversity in semi-natural grasslands should include the assessment of species evenness - as a complement to the assessment of species richness. In addition, our results indicated that the development and persistence of a species-rich and even grassland vegetation was favoured in areas that have historically (in the 19th century) been surrounded by grasslands. Information on landscape history should, whenever possible, be incorporated into the planning of strategies for grassland conservation.     

利用~(137)Cs技术研究土壤可蚀性的时空变异(英文)

土壤可蚀性的研究变异性是当代土壤侵蚀预测预报研究的核心。本综述了土壤可蚀性变异性研究的进展及存在的问题,提出了利用＾１３７Ｃｓ法定量测定土壤可蚀性时空变异的新技术。     

Analysis on pedodiversity and spatial subset representativity—the German soil map 1:1,000,000

Knowledge about spatial soil variation in terms of measured pedodiversity, as well as the spatial distribution of soils in terms of spatial subset representativity, offers the possibility to estimate the quality and variance within a soil map. Additionally, it can help to identify representative sample locations. Demonstrated at the German soil map at a scale of 1:1,000,000, this study describes a methodology to analyze the distribution of taxonomical pedodiversity using the Simpson index and a new approach to derive representative spatial subsets based on a modified χ²‐test (χ_m²), which can be used as monitoring areas. To analyze the spatial composition of the soil map and to detect differences in the underlying mapping schemes of the German soil map 1:1,000,000, three different spatial data structures were studied: (1) the entire soil map, (2) the soil map segmented into geomorphological regions, and (3) the soil map segmented into the Federal States of Germany. Representative patches of varying sizes were statistically derived for all spatial subsets as well as the entire soil map ranging from 20 km × 20 km up to 70 km × 70 km. The results show that the measured pedodiversity is linked to both the geomorphology as well as the political borders of the Federal States. On the one hand, this reveals the uncertainty of measuring pedodiversity on the basis of soil‐class maps as the spatial representation of pedodiversity is influenced by the different mapping traditions and methods applied in the 16 Federal States of Germany. On the other hand, it allows the analysis of the aggregation schemes of different landscapes. The presented approach helps to understand large soilscapes and to compare different soil maps of different states and countries as well as to enhance the soil map with additional information. Furthermore, the representative patches can be used to select soil‐monitoring areas.     

植物多样性对土壤动物影响的研究进展

生物多样性与生态系统功能一直是生态学研究的一个热点。近些年来的研究表明,植物多样性除了影响陆地生态系统地上部分的初级生产力等生态系统功能,还会间接影响地下生物多样性及土壤生态系统过程。本文概述了植物多样性对土壤动物的影响及其主要机制,归纳了植物多样性通过改变输入土壤中的资源数量与资源多样性、微生境结构、土壤环境因子等影响土壤动物的途径。目前关于土壤动物群落对植物多样性的响应仍存在很多问题和争议,本文总结了需要进一步深入研究的方向,特别指出了要加强研究影响植物多样性与土壤动物关系的生物与非生物因子、后续的生态效应和反馈、不同机制和途径的贡献定量化等。     

Modelling semi-natural habitat area on lowland farms in western Ireland

A significant policy objective is the need for protection of biodiversity not just within designated Natura 2000 sites, but also in areas that occur outside of these sites. However there is a lack of information on existing semi-natural habitat cover on EU farms, making it difficult to assess whether targets for halting the loss of agricultural biodiversity are being met. To achieve these targets, reliable yet easy-to-use methods are needed for accurately identifying priority areas for conservation actions and monitoring biodiversity on a large spatial scale.Remote sensing, farmland statistics and species data have been used in some EU countries to create maps to estimate the extent of semi-natural habitat cover but these are acknowledged as being too broad scale. In this study, we examined a method of fine-scale prediction of the spatial coverage of semi-natural habitats in lowland farms. A generalized additive model (GAM) was used to investigate the relationships between landscape and farm management variables and the lowland farmland habitat biodiversity on 32 farms outside of conservation designations, in a region of western Ireland. Semi-natural habitat cover on lowland farms could be predicted with a model using stocking density, soil diversity and river and stream length. It is proposed that this model could be used to predict the coverage of semi-natural habitats on farms in other regions of Ireland with similar land-use and landscape. A similar modelling approach could be adapted for application in other regions of Ireland and across Europe with different landscapes to predict semi-natural habitat coverage.     

Conservation of Northern European plant diversity: the correspondence with soil pH

Effective biodiversity conservation requires an analysis of the existing reserve system. In temperate and boreal regions, plant diversity has a strong positive association with soil pH. Consequently, in order to protect plant diversity effectively, a relatively large proportion of protected areas should be on high pH soils. Since biodiversity data are never complete for all taxa, biodiversity indicators, e.g., threatened species, should be used. We studied soil pH distributions in protected areas in Northern Europe and tested whether soil pH requirement differs between threatened and non-threatened bryophyte and vascular plant species. As result, the proportion of high pH soils in protected areas was significantly greater than the proportion of these soils in general. This ensures that a large regional pool of plant species preferring high pH soils is relatively well protected. Threatened and non-threatened species in Northern Europe did not differ in their soil pH requirements, but threatened species required a narrower soil pH range than non-threatened species. Consequently, threatened species diversity can be used for indicating overall plant diversity.     

Soil biodiversity and DNA barcodes: opportunities and challenges

Soils encompass a huge diversity of organisms which mostly remains to be characterized due to a number of methodological and logistical issues. Nonetheless, remarkable progress has been made in recent years toward developing strategies to characterize and describe soil biodiversity, especially thanks to the development of molecular approaches relying on direct DNA extraction from the soil matrix.Metabarcoding can be applied to DNA from any environment or organism, and is gaining increasing prominence in biodiversity studies. This approach is already commonly used to characterize soil microbial communities and its application is now being extended to other soil organisms, i.e. meso- and macro-fauna.These developments offer unprecedented scientific and operational opportunities in order to better understand soil biodiversity distribution and dynamics, and to propose tools and strategies for biodiversity diagnosis. However, these opportunities also come with challenges that the scientific community must face. Such challenges are related to i) clarification of terminology, (ii) standardisation of methods and further methodological development for additional taxonomic groups, (iii) development of a common database, and (iv) ways to avoid waste of information and data derived from metabarcoding. In order to facilitate common application of metabarcoding in soil biodiversity assessment, we discuss these opportunities and challenges and propose solutions towards a more homogeneous framework.