EPIZOOTIOLOGY OF BLUETONGUE: THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Bluetongue was first reported in the United States in 1948 in sheep in Texas. The virus has now been isolated from sheep in 19 States. When the disease first occurs in a flock, the morbidity may reach 50 to 75% and mortality 20 to 50%. In subsequent years, the morbidity may be only 1 to 2% with very few deaths. Difference in breed susceptibility has not been observed. Natural bluetongue infection has not been observed in Angora or dairy goats. Bluetongue virus was first isolated from cattle, in Oregon, in 1959. The virus has now been isolated from cattle in 13 States. In cattle, the disease is usually inapparent but can cause mild to severe clinical disease and neonatal losses. Natural clinical bluetongue has also been reported in bighorn sheep, exotic ruminants in a zoo, mule deer, and white-tailed deer. Serological evidence of exposure to the virus has also been found in other species of ruminants in the wild. Inoculation of virulent bluetongue virus, vaccine virus, or natural disease can cause congenital deformities and neonatal losses in calves, lambs, and white-tailed deer fawns. Culicoides is considered the important insect vector of bluetongue. The virus has also been isolated from sheep keds and cattle lice. U.S. field strains of the virus fit into four serologic groups. No cross reactions were found between bluetongue and epizootic haemorrhagic disease of deer viruses. Cattle are considered significant virus reservoirs. It is necessary to use washed erythrocytes, rather than whole blood, and to inoculate susceptible sheep, rather than embryonated chicken eggs, to detect longer-term viraemia in cattle.     

A new bluetongue virus serotype isolated in Kenya.

An apparently new strain of bluetongue virus was first isolated in Kenya in 1965 and since, has been obtained on 7 further occasions from diseased sheep during clinical outbreaks of disease. It proved to be serologically different from the 16 bluetongue virus strains then held at this laboratory. The virus was modified by passage in embryonated hens eggs to produce a live virus strain suitable for inclusion in a polyvalent vaccine. Recent neutralisation tests, carried out with 24 guinea pig immune sera prepared at Pirbright against the currently known World serotypes, have confirmed the earlier results and show that it is different from any of the existing serotypes.     

Vaccines for bluetongue

Isolation of 8 serotypes of bluetongue virus (BTV) in Australia has led to widespread debate on how to prepare for an outbreak of bluetongue disease and the type of vaccine best suited to control bluetongue in Australia. This article describes the vaccine options under consideration by research workers and animal health administrators. The most widely discussed options are live attenuated virus, killed virus and virus-like particles (VLP) generated by recombinant baculoviruses. Attenuated virus vaccines are cheap and easy to produce and are administered in a single dose. They replicate in sheep without causing significant clinical effects and provide protection against challenge with virulent virus of the same serotype. The possibility that insects could acquire vaccine virus by feeding on vaccinated animals and transmit it to sheep or cattle cannot be eliminated. This poses a risk because attenuated viruses are teratogenic if ewes are infected in the first half of pregnancy. In addition, vaccine virus replication in insects and ruminants may lead to a reversion to virulence. Killed virus vaccines have been shown to be efficacious in small laboratory trials and cannot be transmitted to other animals in the field, but are significantly more expensive to produce than attenuated viruses and require at least 2 doses with adjuvant to elicit an immune response. More work is needed to properly assess their effectiveness and determine their cost of production. Recombinant VLP contain the 4 major structural proteins of BTV but no nucleic acid. VLP are relatively easy to isolate, but it is unlikely that the purification methods currently used in laboratories will be adapted for use commercially. Despite the enthusiasm of recent years, little commercial progress appears to have been made. Although scientific research in Australia and overseas has provided a number of options for development of bluetongue vaccines, the decisions on which to use in an outbreak are complex and will require, not only consideration of factors discussed here, but also agreement from industry and government.     

The impact of bluetongue virus on reproduction

Bluetongue virus has been recognized as an important noncontagious, arthropodborne infectious viral disease of ruminants. 24 different serotypes of virus have been recognized world-wide. The most severe clinical disease has been associated with severe clinical disease in sheep and some free ranging wild ruminants. A number of reports have implicated the viruses as causing reproductive disorders in both males and females. The bluetongue related reproductive disorders include early embryonic deaths, abortions, malformed fetal calves or lambs, transient infertility in bulls and rams, and shedding of virus in semen. Recently, bluetongue virus contamination of modified live commercial canine vaccine was associated with abortion and acute death of pregnant bitches. The pathogenesis of these various aspects of reproductive failure are discussed herein.     

Prevalence of bluetongue virus antibodies in sheep in central Ethiopia

Competitive ELISA was applied to detect antibodies against bluetongue virus in sheep sera collected from different agro-climatic areas in Ethiopia. A total of 90 serum samples were tested and 42 (46.67%) were positive for bluetongue virus antibodies. A prevalence rate ranging from 9.67% for sheep sampled in the highland to 92.85% for sheep sampled in the lowland was recorded. The prevalence correlated with the probable distribution of the Culicoides vector. This is the first report indicating the presence of bluetongue virus infection in animals from Ethiopia.     

Serial inoculation of sheep with two bluetongue virus types

Groups of sheep inoculated with bluetongue virus type 4 were challenged at various intervals after inoculation (from seven to 70 days) with bluetongue virus type 3. Examination of the clinical and serological response showed that animals were protected from challenge with a second bluetongue virus for up to 14 days after the inoculation of the first virus type. An adoptive transfer experiment in monozygotic sheep involving both antibody and T lymphocytes was carried out. Only partial protection was observed against heterologous virus challenge, indicating that although the T cell response has a cross-protective component, antibody is not involved. These observations indicate that current vaccination procedures should be reappraised, particularly in terms of revaccination with multiple bluetongue virus type.     

THE CONTROL OF BLUETONGUE IN AN ENZOOTIC SITUATION

On account of the wide host range of bluetongue virus and its biological transmission by insects, control of the disease in an enzootic situation is based primarily on the active immunisation of susceptible animals as well as on the prevention of contact between the insect vectors and the susceptible hosts. In spite of their unquestionable value, the egg attenuated vaccines which are currently employed for prophylactic immunisation, have certain shortcomings. The existence of 16 known serotypes of bluetongue virus makes it difficult to achieve a very wide spectrum of immunity in sheep vaccinated once or twice only. The problems which are experienced with the immunisation of lambs born in spring are indicated. The present vaccine can also present problems when used in breeding animals. Furthermore, the costs involved in the annual vaccination of large numbers of animals are considerable. The need for a vaccine for cattle is indicated. Work is also being conducted at present on the development of an inactivated vaccine for use in sheep. The use of novel virological techniques may aid in the future development of absolutely safe and highly efficient vaccines against bluetongue.     

A monovalent attenuated serotype 2 bluetongue virus vaccine confers homologous protection in sheep

An outbreak of bluetongue caused by bluetongue virus serotype 2 virus in certain Mediterranean countries during 1999/2000, presented an opportunity to produce a monovalent type 2 vaccine. Since no data have been published previously on the protection conferred by the current live attenuated bluetongue vaccine strains used in the polyvalent vaccine, a challenge experiment was performed to determine the degree of homologous protection induced by the type 2 vaccine strain. The standard vaccine dose of 5 x 10(4) pfu of vaccine conferred 99.7% protection against clinical disease and no viraemia was detected in the vaccinates.     

Vaccines against bluetongue in Europe

After the incursion of bluetongue virus (BTV) into European Mediterranean countries in 1998, vaccination was used in an effort to minimize direct economic losses to animal production, reduce virus circulation and allow safe movements of animals from endemic areas. Vaccination strategies in different countries were developed according to their individual policies, the geographic distribution of the incurring serotypes of BTV and the availability of appropriate vaccines. Four monovalent modified live virus (MLV) vaccines were imported from South Africa and subsequently used extensively in both cattle and sheep. MLVs were found to be immunogenic and capable of generating strong protective immunity in vaccinated ruminants. Adverse side effects were principally evident in sheep. Specifically, some vaccinated sheep developed signs of clinical bluetongue with fever, facial oedema and lameness. Lactating sheep that developed fever also had reduced milk production. More severe clinical signs occurred in large numbers of sheep that were vaccinated with vaccine combinations containing the BTV-16 MLV, and the use of the monovalent BTV-16 MLV was discontinued as a consequence. Abortion occurred in <0.5% of vaccinated animals. The length of viraemia in sheep and cattle that received MLVs did not exceed 35 days, with the single notable exception of a cow vaccinated with a multivalent BTV-2, -4, -9 and -16 vaccine in which viraemia persisted at least 78 days. Viraemia of sufficient titre to infect Culicoides insects was observed transiently in MLV-vaccinated ruminants, and natural transmission of MLV strains has been confirmed. An inactivated vaccine was first developed against BTV-2 and used in the field. An inactivated vaccine against BTV-4 as well as a bivalent vaccine against serotypes 2 and 4 were subsequently developed and used in Corsica, Spain, Portugal and Italy. These inactivated vaccines were generally safe although on few occasions reactions occurred at the site of inoculation. Two doses of these BTV inactivated vaccines provided complete, long-lasting immunity against both clinical signs and viraemia, whereas a single immunization with the BTV-4 inactivated vaccine gave only partial reduction of viraemia in vaccinated cattle when challenged with the homologous BTV serotype. Additional BTV inactivated vaccines are currently under development, as well as new generation vaccines including recombinant vaccines.     

Experimental Bluetongue Disease in White-Tailed Deer

Nine white-tailed deer and six sheep were experimentally exposed to the California BTV-8 strain of bluetongue virus. The infections were fatal for seven of the nine deer. An additional deer died from exposure to an isolate of bluetongue virus from bighorn sheep. Clinical signs and lesions of bluetongue in deer were described. The incubation period, signs and lesions of bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer appear to be similar. Virus isolations were made from the blood and a variety of tissues of exposed deer and identified as bluetongue virus. Neutralizing antibodies were detected in all of the convalescent sera.     

Serological reactions in sheep and cattle experimentally infected with three Australian isolates of bluetongue virus

Serums from 103 sheep and 24 cattle experimentally infected with one of 3 serotypes of bluetongue virus isolated in Australia were tested for antibody to bluetongue virus in the serum neutralisation test and the agar gel diffusion precipitin test. Antibody to bluetongue virus was first detected by these tests 8 to 10 days after intravenous infection in 4 sheep that were bled daily for serum analysis. The agar gel diffusion test failed to detect antibody in 28% (29/103) of sheep which had seroconverted in the serum neutralisation test. A further 7% (7/103) of sheep serums were negative in both tests 14 to 22 d after infection. Both tests detected antibody to bluetongue virus in all cattle serums by 10 days after detection of viraemia. In comparison with the intravenous route of infection, extended prepatent periods for the commencement of viraemia resulting from intradermal, subcutaneous and intrauterine routes of infection in the cattle caused corresponding delays in the detection of antibody. For example, one cow that was infected by intrauterine inoculation did not become viraemic until 22 d after inoculation and antibody was not detected until 32 d after inoculation.     

Bluetongue in western Turkey

In October 1977 clinical bluetongue broke out in Aydin province, western Turkey and spread to adjacent provinces in the autumn months of 1978 and 1979. The outbreak was caused by a virus of serotype 4 and appeared to occur in a totally susceptible population. It was eventually controlled by widespread use of attenuated type-specific vaccine. Bluetongue virus was isolated from sheep on several occasions and also from a calf with congenital arthrogryposis and hydranencephaly. This latter finding is discussed in relation to Akabane virus, a recognised arbovirus teratogen thought to be present in the same area at the same time.     

Molecular epidemiology of bluetongue virus in Portugal during 2004-2006 outbreak

After 44 years of epidemiological silence, bluetongue virus (BTV) was reintroduced in Portugal in the autumn of 2004. The first clinical cases of bluetongue disease (BT) were notified in sheep farms located in the South of Portugal, close to the Spanish border. A total of six BTV, five of serotype 4 and one of serotype 2 were isolated from sheep and cattle during the 2004-2006 epizootics. The nucleotide sequence of gene segments L2, S7 and S10 of BTV-4 prototype strain (BTV4/22045/PT04) obtained from the initial outbreak and of BTV-2 (BTV2/26629/PT05) was fully determined and compared with those from other parts of the world. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that BTV4/22045/PT04 is related to other BTV-4 strains that circulate in the Mediterranean basin since 1998, showing the highest identity (99%) with BTV-4 isolates of 2003 from Sardinia and Corsica, whereas BTV2/26629/PT05 is almost indistinguishable from the Onderstepoort BTV-2 live-attenuated vaccine strain and its related field strain isolated in Italy. Since live-attenuated BTV-2 vaccine was never used in Portugal, the isolation of this strain may represent a natural circulation of the vaccine virus used in other countries in Mediterranean Europe.     

Susceptibility of Sudanese sheep to a bluetongue virus isolated from apparently healthy cattle in the Sudan

This study intends to clarify the role of apparently healthy cattle as a reservoir of bluetongue (BT) virus to sheep in the Sudan. It confirms earlier work and establishes that cattle can harbour bluetongue virus to which sheep are susceptible in the country. Experimental transmission of BT virus between the two species suggests that the best indicator to determine viraemia in apparently healthy cattle is to inoculate susceptible sheep with suspected cattle virus. The condition of the viraemia and the virus survival in the field are discussed.     

The immunological response to intact and dissociated blue-tongue virus in mice.

Antigenic fractions of bluetongue virus were separated by ultracentrifugation in Tris-buffered CsCl gradients at pH 6, 7 or 8 and the bluetongue virus polypeptide composition of the bands isolated from these gradeints was monitored by polyacrylamide gel slab electrophoresis. The immunological response to these fractions in mice was determined by a haemolytic plaque-forming cell assay, using sheep erythrocytes onto which intact bluetongue virus was adsorbed as lytic indicator cells. Isolated outer layer bluetongue virus polypeptide 2, from gradients at pH 6, and polypeptides 2 and 5, from gradients at pH 7, produced a strong primary IgM plaque-forming cell response. The subviral particles of density 1, 39 g.cm-3 and the bluetongue virus core particles of density 1,42 g.cm-3 also stimulated an IgM response at least as strong as that to intact bluetongue virus of density 1,38 g.cm-3. The isolated bluetongue virus fractions therefore appear to maintain their immunogenic integrity as effectively as those of intact bluetongue virus. The pattern of the immune response to bluetongue virus type 4 is similar to that of type 10.     

Sheep erythrocyte and bluetongue virus antibody responses of spleen cell cultures from mice.

The optimum conditions for the culture of cells from dissociated spleens were determined. Routinely, 10(7) cells were seeded per ml of RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 20% pre-tested foetal calf serum. For the assay of the immune response, cultures were supplemented with 30 muMolar mercaptoethanol. The immune responses to sheep erythrocyte and bluetongue virus antigens were determined by the haemolytic plaque-forming cell assays described by Oellermann (1974) and Oellermann, Carter & Marx (1976a). The optimum sheep erythrocyte antigen concentration was 2 X 10(6) erythrocytes per 10(7) spleen cells and maximum IgM plaque-forming cells were detected after 4 days in culture. Successful stimulation of the immune response to bluetongue virus was achieved in spleen cell cultures from mice previously primed with bluetongue virus. The optimum antigen concentration was 30-40 ng bluetongue virus per 10(7) spleen cells and the maximum plaque-forming cell response was observed after 4 days in culture.     

Evidence for the presence of bluetongue virus in Kosovo between 2001 and 2004

In 2001, clinical cases of bluetongue were observed in Kosovo, and in that year and in 2003 and 2004, serum samples were collected from cattle and small ruminants and tested for antibodies to bluetongue virus. The results provide evidence that bluetongue virus was not present in Kosovo before the summer of 2001, but that the virus circulated subclinically among the cattle and sheep populations of Kosovo in 2002, 2003 and 2004.     

Virulence of bluetongue virus for British sheep

A South African isolate of bluetongue virus type 3 was inoculated intradermally into three different breeds of British sheep under conditions designed to test its virulence in animals under stress. All animals inoculated developed a pyrexia and viraemia followed by clinical evidence of bluetongue disease. Marked alterations in serum enzyme levels, in particular of creatine phosphokinase, lactate dehydrogenase and aldolase occurred in the more severely affected animals. Nine out of the 12 inoculated animals subsequently died. No major differences in response could be detected in the different breeds of sheep nor in the stressed compared with the unstressed groups. The virulence of this bluetongue virus isolate was thereby confirmed and its potential risk to the British sheep industry. Consequently, stringent import regulations must be maintained to prevent its entry into Britain.