Correlations Between Empirical and Fundamental Rheology Measurements and Baking Performance of Frozen Bread Dough

Empirical and fundamental rheology measurements were made on fresh and frozen dough to investigate the effects of freezing, frozen storage, and additives. These results were compared with results of a standard baking test. Four formulations were tested: a control dough, and doughs with additions of 100 ppm of ascorbic acid (AA), 0.5% sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL), and 0.5% diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides (DATEM). Rheological and baking tests were performed on fresh doughs and on doughs after two, five, and eight weeks of frozen storage. Resistance to extension was higher for doughs with additives in fresh and frozen doughs. There was a decrease in resistance to extension due to freezing. Complex modulus in fresh doughs was highest for doughs with SSL. There was a decrease complex modulus after freezing and thawing. In frozen doughs at 10 Hz, doughs with additives had higher complex modulus values and lower phase angle values when compared to the control. The additives used all had a positive effect on proof time, loaf volume, and crumb firmness, and all formulations deteriorated in quality during frozen storage. Resistance to extension and complex modulus were positively correlated with loaf volume (r = 0.86 and r = 0.64, P < 0.01). Phase angle was negatively correlated with loaf volume (r = -0.74, P < 0.01).     

Impact of Wheat Fiber on Frozen Dough Shelf Life and Bread Quality

Freezing and prolonged frozen storage of dough results in constant deterioration in the overall quality of the final product. In this study the effect of wheat bran and wheat aleurone as sources of arabinoxylan (AX) on the quality of bread baked from yeasted frozen dough was investigated. Wheat fiber sources were milled to pass through a 0.5 mm screen, prehydrated for 15 min, and incorporated into refined wheat flour at 15% replacement level. Dough products were prepared from refined flour (control A), whole wheat flour (control B), aleurone composite flour (composite flour A), and bran composite flour (composite flour B) and stored at –18°C for 28 weeks. Dough samples were evaluated for breadmaking quality at zero time, 14 weeks, and 28 weeks of storage. Quality parameters evaluated were loaf weight, loaf specific volume, and crumb firmness. Composite flour bread samples showed the most resistance to freeze damage (less reduction in the overall product quality), indicating a possible role of some fiber components (e.g., AX) in minimizing water redistribution in the dough system and therefore lessening adverse modifications to the gluten structure. The data suggest that the shelf life of frozen dough and quality of obtained bread can be improved with the addition of an AX source.     

Effects of DATEM on Dough Rheological Characteristics and Qualities of CSB and Bread

Diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglycerides (DATEM) is a kind of anionic emulsifier. To date, the positive effect of DATEM on the volume of bread has been reported, but the effects on Chinese steamed bread (CSB) quality and other parameters for bread quality are still unclear. The effects of DATEM on the characteristics of dough and the qualities of CSB and bread were investigated. The results showed that, the effects of DATEM on the rheological properties of dough were complex. Water absorption ratio of CSB dough decreased slightly, while that of bread dough increased slightly. But gas retention and structure improved and gluten strength increased for both CSB and bread doughs after DATEM was added. The studies also showed that structure, elasticity, tenacity, and whiteness of CSB were improved, but specific volume was almost unchanged. The structure, color, and smoothness were significantly improved for bread, and specific volume increased compared with the control. The optimal quantities of DATEM for CSB and bread were both ≈0.10% (on flour mass basis).     

Effect of Protein Quality,Protein Content,Bran Addition,DATEM, Proving Time,and Their Interaction on Hearth Bread

The effect of protein quality, protein content, bran addition, diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglycerides (DATEM), proving time, and their interaction on hearth bread characteristics were studied by size‐exclusion fast protein liquid chromatography, Kieffer dough and gluten extensibility rig, and small‐scale baking of hearth loaves. Protein quality influenced size and shape of the hearth loaves positively. Enhanced protein content increased loaf volume and decreased the form ratio of hearth loaves. The effect of protein quality and protein content was dependent on the size‐distribution of the proteins in flour, which affected the viscoelastic properties of the dough. Doughs made from flours with strong protein quality can be proved for a longer time and thereby expand more than doughs made from weak protein quality flours. Doughs made from strong protein quality flours tolerated bran addition better than doughs made from weak protein quality flours. Doughs made from high protein content flours were more suited for hearth bread production with bran than doughs made from flours with low protein content. DATEM had small effect on dough properties and hearth loaf characteristics compared with the other factors.     

Fermentation Stability and Pore Size Distribution of Frozen Prefermented Lean Wheat Doughs

Fermentation stability of frozen prefermented doughs was studied with a maturograph, an instrument that allows monitoring of dough rise, gas production, and gas retention during fermentation. Maturograph curves excellently predicted the baking quality, measured as form ratio, after frozen storage. The greatest decrease in dough level occurred after seven days of storage, after which the level remained constant. With some flours, decreased amount of water improved both the fermentation stability and form ratio of breads baked after seven days of frozen storage of dough. However, no improvement was observed in loaf volume. Preliminary experiments with longer final fermentation time (after thawing) showed that the reduced water content also resulted in higher loaf volumes than did optimal water content. Microscopic studies showed that with most doughs, porosity decreased with reduced water content. However, these changes depended on flour type. In one dough, reduction of water by 2 percentage units decreased the area of pores per total area of section from 56.6 to 46.4%, whereas in another dough the same water reduction had no effect on the pore area.     

Effects of Commercial Hydrolytic Enzyme Additives on Japanese‐Style Sponge and Dough Bread Properties and Processing Characteristics

The effects of increasing levels of eight commercial fungal enzymes enriched in four types of activity (α‐amylase, protease, xylanase, or cellulase) on Japanese‐style sponge and dough bread quality and processing characteristics have been studied using a Canadian red spring wheat straight‐grade flour. At optimum levels, the enriched α‐amylases, xylanases, and cellulases increased loaf volume and bread score and reduced crumb firmness, while the proteases only reduced crumb firmness. For α‐amylases, xylanases, and cellulases, optimum levels for crumb firmness were obtained at higher levels of addition than for loaf volume and bread score. At high levels of addition, all four enriched enzyme types reduced loaf volume and bread score and increased crumb firmness relative to optimum levels, with the proteases showing the most dramatic effects. α‐Amylases and cellulases had little impact on dough mixing requirements, while xylanases increased and proteases greatly reduced mixing requirements. All enzymes at optimum levels reduced sheeting work requirements, resulting in softer more pliable dough. Optimum bread properties for α‐amylases, xylanases, and cellulases were attained within a relatively narrow range of dough sheeting work values. This similarity in response suggests a dominant common nonspecific mechanism for their improver action, which is most likely related to water release and the resulting impact on physical dough properties.     

Pyranose Oxidase from Trametes multicolor Impacts Dough and Bread Microstructure

Pyranose oxidase (P₂O) improves wheat flour dough stability and bread quality. We related its effect on dough spread behavior to that on dough and bread crumb structure. Increasing P₂O addition levels gradually reduced dough flow. High P₂O addition levels further increased dough strength, significantly increased dough cell wall thickness, and decreased bread loaf volume. Taken together, affecting dough spread behavior impacts dough and bread (crumb) structure, and dough structure largely determines bread crumb structure.     

Effects of Transglutaminase on Rheology,Microstructure, and Baking Properties of Frozen Dough

The improving effects of transglutaminase (TGase) were investigated on the frozen dough system and its breadmaking quality. Rheological properties and microstructure of fresh and frozen doughs were measured using a Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA), dynamic rheometer, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The frozen doughs with three storage periods (1, 3, and 5 weeks at –18°C) were studied at three levels (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5%) of TGase. As the amount of TGase increased, hot pasting peak viscosity and final viscosity from the RVA decreased, but breakdown value increased. The TGase content showed a positive correlation with both storage modulus G′ (elastic modulus) and the loss modulus G″ (viscous modulus): G′ was higher than G″ at any given frequency. The SEM micrographs showed that TGase strengthened the gluten network of fresh, unfrozen dough. After five weeks of frozen storage at –18°C, the gluten structure in the control dough appeared less continuous, more disrupted, and separated from the starch granules, while the dough containing 0.5% TGase showed less fractured gluten network. Addition of TGase increased specific volume of bread significantly (P < 0.05) with softer bread texture. Even after the five weeks of frozen storage, bread volume from dough with 1.5% TGase was similar to that of the fresh control bread (P < 0.05). The improving effects of TGase on frozen dough were likely the result of the ability of TGase to polymerize proteins to stabilize the gluten structure embedded by starch granules in frozen doughs.     

Bread Quality Relationship with Rheological Measurements of Wheat Flour Dough

The rheological properties of wheat doughs prepared from different flour types, water contents, and mixing times for a total of 20 dough systems were studied. The results were compared with the results of standard baking tests with the same factors. Water and flour type had a significant effect on storage modulus (G′) or phase angle measured by an oscillatory test both in the linear viscoelastic region and as a function of stress, and on compressional force measured as a function of time. The correlation of maximum force of dough in compression and G′ of dough measured within the linear viscoelastic region was r = 0.80. Correlation between the compression and oscillation test improved when all measuring points of the G′ stress curve were included (r = 0.88). The baking performance of the different doughs varied greatly; loaf volumes ranged from 2.9 to 4.7 mL/g. Although the water content of the dough correlated with the rheological measurements, the correlation of G′measured in the linear viscoelastic region or maximum force from stress‐time curve during compression was poor for bread loaf volumes. Mixing time from 4.5 to 15.5 min did not affect the rheological measurements. No correlation was observed with the maximum force of compression or G′ of dough measured in the linear viscoelastic region and baking performance. Good correlation of rheological measurements of doughs and baking performance was obtained when all the data points from force‐time curve and whole stress sweep (G′ as a function of stress) were evaluated with multivariate partial least squares regression. Correlation of all data points with loaf volume was r = 0.81 and 0.72, respectively, in compression and shear oscillation.     

Influence of Nitrogen Fertilizer Treatments on Spring Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Flour Characteristics and Effect on Fresh and Frozen Dough Quality

Growers are targeting hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (HRSW) for frozen dough end uses. Consequently, it is important to determine whether increasing nitrogen (N) fertilizer rates and grain protein content (GPC) improve frozen dough quality. Four HRSW cultivars were grown in low‐N soils at three locations over two years in North Dakota and fertilized with N rates of 0 kg/ha, 67.2 kg/ha, and 134.4 kg/ha. End use characteristics were analyzed using farinograph, extensigraph, and baking tests. Fresh and frozen doughs were analyzed to determine the effects of N treatments on frozen storage. A cultivar × N treatment interaction existed for extensigram curve area of fresh dough. A significant increase in GPC existed between the 0 and 67.2 kg/ha N treatments. Farinograph water absorption, arrival times, and peak times increased significantly at the 67.2 kg/ha N treatment. Bread loaf volume of fresh dough increased significantly with all treatments, while loaf volume of frozen dough increased significantly only at the 67.2 kg/ha N treatment. Therefore, aside from fresh dough loaf volume, there appears to be no improvement in frozen dough quality with the use of higher than typical N application.     

Assay of Dehydroascorbic Acid in Bread and Dough Added as a Crystalline Dimer

The assay of dehydro-l -ascorbic acid (DHAA) in dough and bread was done by reduction of DHAA to l -ascorbic acid (AA) in aqueous dithiothreitol (DTT) at pH 6–7 followed by quantitation of the AA using HPLC with electrochemical detection. At room temperature and pH 6.6, with 4.0 equivalents of DTT, the conversion of DHAA to AA was stoichiometric after 5 min. In mixograms on flour-water doughs, DHAA added in dimeric form at 200 ppm had no effect on absorption but increased mixing time by 9–19% with the same effects occurring in full-formula doughs. AA added to doughs did not affect mixing peak time or absorption. Mixing bread doughs with an initial level of 25–200 ppm of AA based on flour (14% mb) produced DHAA in the freshly mixed doughs at concentrations of 20–51 ppm, or from 80 to 26% of AA added. During ≈120 min of fermentation and proofing, the levels of AA in the doughs increased by 4–10 ppm. Mixing bread doughs with an initial level of 25–200 ppm of DHAA produced no AA in the freshly mixed doughs, but the proofed doughs and fresh breads contained 4–10 ppm and 7–49 ppm of AA, respectively. Fresh bread made from dough with 200 ppm of AA retained 66% total vitamin C (110 ppm of AA + 21 ppm of DHAA), whereas bread made with 200 ppm of DHAA retained 9.5% total vitamin C (13 ppm of AA + 6 ppm of DHAA). DHAA was 2–4 times more effective in improving loaf volume than an equal weight of AA in no-time dough, and 1.5–2 times more effective in straight-dough. In straight-dough bread made with a commercial bread flour, increasing concentrations of DHAA markedly improved bread up to ≈20 ppm, beyond which overoxidation occurred rapidly. In contrast, increasing concentrations of AA improved bread up to ≈150 ppm with a broad tolerance up to 200 ppm. The improving action of DHAA was independent of the concentration of air in the mixing bowl, and DHAA was much more heat-labile than AA.     

Influences of Baking and Thawing Conditions on Quality of Par‐Baked French Bread

We examined the effects of baking time and temperature for the preparation of par‐baked French bread, and of thawing and second baking conditions on the characteristics of bread prepared from par‐baked bread. Par‐baked French bread with loaf volume and crumb structure comparable to fully baked bread (control) was obtained with ≥6 min baking at 218°C, which increased the crumb temperature to 97°C. Freezing, thawing, and second baking of par‐baked bread decreased loaf volume by ≥100 mL. The second baking time of par‐baked bread, which was adjusted to have the bread crumb subjected to 97°C for 14 min based on the crumb temperature profile, produced a darker crust of bread compared with the control. The par‐baked bread with 6 min of initial baking at 218°C and frozen at ‐30°C required 12 min of second baking after thawing for 180 min to ≈20°C to produce crust color, crumb moisture, and firmness comparable to that of the control. When thawing time of par‐baked bread was shortened from 180 to 0 min, the second baking time required to yield crust color similar to the control increased from 12 to 16 min. The crumb moisture content was higher in bread baked for 16 min without thawing par‐baked bread than those baked after thawing for 45 or 180 min. Lowering the initial baking temperature of par‐baked bread from 246 to 163°C with the adjustment of baking time from 4 to 12 min decreased crumb firmness of the re‐baked (218°C, 16 min) bread from 2.5 to 1.5 N at 2 hr after baking and from 9.8–10.3 to 6.2–6.3 N at 48 hr.     

Relationship of Bread Quality to Kernel,Flour, and Dough Properties

This study measured the relationship between bread quality and 49 hard red spring (HRS) or 48 hard red winter (HRW) grain, flour, and dough quality characteristics. The estimated bread quality attributes included loaf volume, bake mix time, bake water absorption, and crumb grain score. The best‐fit models for loaf volume, bake mix time, and water absorption had R² values of 0.78–0.93 with five to eight variables. Crumb grain score was not well estimated, and had R² values ≈0.60. For loaf volume models, grain or flour protein content was the most important parameter included. Bake water absorption was best estimated when using mixograph water absorption, and flour or grain protein content. Bake water absorption models could generally be improved by including farinograph, mixograph, or alveograph measurements. Bake mix time was estimated best when using mixograph mix time, and models could be improved by including glutenin data. When the data set was divided into calibration and prediction sets, the loaf volume and bake mix time models still looked promising for screening samples. When including only variables that could be rapidly measured (protein content, test weight, single kernel moisture content, single kernel diameter, single kernel hardness, bulk moisture content, and dark hard and vitreous kernels), only loaf volume could be predicted with accuracies adequate for screening samples.     

Rheology,Microstructure, and Baking Characteristics of Frozen Dough Containing Rhizopus chinensis Lipase and Transglutaminase

The beneficial effects of a new recombinant lipase (Rhizopus chinensis lipase [RCL]) and transglutaminase (TG) were investigated on frozen dough systems and their breadmaking quality. Rheological properties and microstructure of doughs were measured using a dynamic rheometer, rheofermentometer F3, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Measurements of viscoelastic properties showed that both G′ and G″ of dough containing RCL and TG were greater than those of the control after 35 days of frozen storage. The SEM micrographs showed that dough containing RCL and TG had the most starch granules embedded in or attached to the gluten network, and the gluten seemed more powerful and resilient than for the control dough after 35 days of frozen storage. Results of the gas production and dough development tests indicated that RCL and TG improved the rheofermentative characteristics of frozen dough. RCL and TG could improve water‐holding capacity and significantly increase the glycerol content of the control dough. Image analyses showed that bread crumbs containing RCL and TG had a more open network and uniform crumb structure, which resulted in higher specific volume. This combination also yielded a product with higher sensory scores for test breads.     

Influence of Sodium Caseinate and Whey Protein on Baking Properties and Rheology of Frozen Dough

Dairy ingredients are added to bakery products to increase nutritional and functional properties. Sodium caseinate (SC) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) were incorporated into frozen dough. WPC was subjected to heat treatment (WPCHT) to eliminate undesirable weakening of the gluten network. 2% SC or 4% SC decreased proof time, increased loaf volume, and improved texture. Effects of adding 4% SC on baking quality were similar to adding ascorbic acid (AA) and diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides (DATEM). WPC increased proof time, decreased volume, and negatively affected texture. Heat treatment of WPC improved baking performance. Bread with WPCHT had volume similar to that of the control without dairy ingredients. Adding 4% SC decreased resistance to extension (R_5cm measured with the extensigraph), while adding 4% WPC increased extensibility. Dynamic oscillation testing determined the effects of the ingredients on fundamental rheological properties. WPC decreased storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″), while heat treatment of WPC increased G′ and G″. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) showed that milk proteins affect frozen dough ultrastructure. Frozen doughs with SC had an enhanced gluten network compared with the control, while untreated WPC appeared to interfere with the gluten network.     

Transgenic Enhancement of High‐Molecular‐Weight Glutenin Subunit 1Dy10 Concentration: Effects in Wheat Flour Blends and Sponge and Dough Baking

Dough strength is needed for efficient breadmaking quality. This property is strongly influenced in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) by gluten seed storage proteins and, in particular, by high‐molecular‐weight (HMW) glutenin subunit composition. Experiments were designed to elevate expression of a key native HMW glutenin subunit (1Dy10) via genetic engineering and to determine whether resultant flours can be used in sponge and dough applications, the most common commercial bread‐baking procedure. Both unblended and blended samples from transgenic and nontransgenic sister lines were tested, with blended samples being formed by addition to a control sample. Dough properties, as determined by farinograph evaluation, were improved by the transgene‐encoded increases in 1Dy10 in both undiluted and blended flours. Mean farinograph stability of transgenic samples was twice that of the control, and blends with transgenic samples demonstrated increases in stabilities proportional to the amount of transgenic flour included. Mean farinograph quality numbers of transgenic samples, and of all blends containing transgenic flour, were significantly higher than both the control and all nontransgenic treatments. In the sponge and dough bake procedure, undiluted transgenic samples induced lower scores, relative to both control and undiluted nontransgenic samples, for water absorption, crumb body firmness, and loaf volume. In blends, however, the transgenic samples resulted in improvements in some sponge and dough loaf attributes, including loaf symmetry and crumb color score, without any concomitant loss of loaf volume in transgenic blends. These improved variables relate to finished product appearance and to consumer selection in markets. The use of transgenic flours with increased 1Dy10 glutenin content in commercial blends could provide advantages in sponge and dough bake applications.     

Frozen Bread Dough Properties Modified by Thermostable Ice Structuring Proteins Extract from Chinese Privet (Ligustrum vulgare) Leaves

Thermostable ice structuring proteins (TSISPs) extracted from Chinese privet (Ligustrum vulgare) leaves were used in frozen dough. TSISPs extract thermal hysteresis activity ranged from 0 to 0.27°C based on different ice fractions in solution. The effects of the TSISPs extract on melting enthalpy of ice (ΔH), water molecular state, microstructure, rheofermentation capacity, and baking properties of doughs during frozen storage were investigated by differential scanning calorimetry, thermal gravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, rheofermentometer, and texture analyzer. The addition of TSISPs in frozen dough caused a decrease in freedom of water molecules and ΔH, which resulted in improved microstructure, fermentation capacity, and baking properties of frozen doughs. Residual gluten fibril increased, exposed starch granules decreased, and gas production and retention of frozen doughs was enhanced. These effects resulted in an increase in specific volume and a decrease in crumb hardness of baked frozen dough.     

Effects of Monoglycerides of Varying Fatty Acid Chain Length and Mixtures Thereof on Sponge‐and‐Dough Breadmaking Quality

Monoglycerides are widely used in the baking industry because of their antistaling effects, mainly suppressing crumb firming. Commercial monoglycerides are normally prepared from hydrogenated fats, with stearate being the most common fatty acid. In a previous study, monoglycerides such as monopalmitate (C16) and monostearate (C18) had positive effects on Canadian short process bread but no improvements on sponge‐and‐dough process (SDP) bread. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of saturated monoglycerides of varying fatty acid chain length (C14–C22) on SDP breadmaking quality by using volume judgment, crumb image analysis, and texture measurements. Higher levels (1.00–1.50%) of all monoglycerides (C14, C16, and C18) significantly (P < 0.05) increased loaf volume and cell diameter. The larger cell diameter with increasing levels of these monoglycerides may have resulted from softer, more extensible dough handling properties and greater gas cell stability during baking. Addition of C16 and C18 caused the largest increase in crumb softness with increasing monoglyceride levels but showed relatively low resilience, which might be related to larger loaf volume (i.e., lower density of bread). However, addition of blended monoglycerides C14+C16 increased crumb softness and loaf volume while partially retaining resilience. Each monoglyceride had a different function in breadmaking quality and somewhat positive effects on SDP.     

Effects of Oat Grain Hydrothermal Treatments on Wheat-Oat Flour Dough Properties and Breadbaking Quality

Hydrothermal treatments, which are routine in oat processing, have profound effects on oat flour dough rheological properties. The influence of roasting and steam treatments of oat grain on dough mixing and breadbaking properties was investigated when hydrothermally treated oat flour was blended with wheat flour. Roasting of oat grain (105°C, 2 hr) resulted in oat flours that were highly detrimental to wheat flour dough mixing properties and breadbaking quality. Steaming (105°C, 20 min) or a combination of roasting and steaming of oat grain significantly improved the breadbaking potential of the oat flours. The addition of oat flours increased water absorption and mixing requirements of the wheat flour dough and also decreased bread loaf volume. However, at the 10% substitution level, steamed oat flours exhibited only a gluten dilution effect on bread loaf volume when wheat starch was used as a reference. Oat flour in the breadbaking system decreased the retrogradation rate of bread crumb starch. The results indicate that adequate hydrothermal treatments of oat grain are necessary for oat flour breadbaking applications. Steamed oat flours used at a 10% level retarded bread staling without adversely affecting the loaf volume.     

Effects of Yeast Freezing in Frozen Dough

The effects of freezing and frozen storage of bread dough and compressed yeast on bread quality were studied. Besides, the effects of compressed yeast freezing on cell viability, gas production and release of substances by the yeast cells were examined. Freezing and frozen storage of dough made with fresh yeast had more negative effects on baking quality than the addition of frozen yeast to dough. When the compressed yeast is frozen and stored at ‐18°C, the CO₂ production decreased, while the amount of dead cells, the total protein, and the total reducing substances leached from the yeast increased as the length of yeast frozen storage increased. SDS‐PAGE showed that the substances leached from frozen yeast caused an increase in the solubility of some gluten proteins. On the other hand, size‐exclusion chromatography (SEC) pointed out that the relative amount of two protein fractions of low molecular weight leached from frozen yeast increased for longer yeast frozen storage periods. The yeast leachates had an adverse effect on loaf volume.