Properties of Starch Noodles as Affected by Sweetpotato Genotype

Starch was extracted from 14 sweetpotato genotypes from the Philippines. The Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA) viscoamylographs of the starches showed Type A pasting curves, characterized by a high pasting peak followed by a high degree of shear-thinning. The major difference among genotypes was in the sharpness of the peak, with some showing a very sharp peak while others showed a broad peak. This difference was related to time from onset of pasting to peak viscosity, and to stability ratio (holding viscosity/peak viscosity), which were also highly correlated (r = 0.84, P < 0.01) to each other. Stability ratio was also correlated to noodle firmness (r = 0.95, P < 0.01), rehydration (cooked weight) (r = -0.89, P < 0.01), and swelling volume of the starch (r = -0.62, P < 0.05). The amylose content was correlated significantly only to peak viscosity (r = -0.84, P < 0.01). Significant differences in texture and cooking quality of the starch noodles produced from the different genotypes was found. It was shown that the RVA viscoamylographs could be used to detect differences in pasting characteristics of sweetpotato starch which are related to quality of noodle produced.     

Noodle Quality as Related to Sorghum Starch Properties

Starch was extracted from 10 sorghum genotypes and physicochemical properties (amylose content and pasting, textural, and thermal properties) were evaluated. The amylose content was 24–30%. DC‐75 starch had the highest peak viscosity (380 Rapid Visco Analyser units). Gelatinization peak temperature occurred over a narrow range (67–69°C). Genotypes Kasvikisire and SV2 produced white starches. Starches from other genotypes were different shades of pink. The starch noodles prepared were, accordingly, either white or pink. Cooking enhanced the pink coloration of noodles. Cooking loss, noodle rehydration, and elasticity were evaluated. Cooking loss was low (mean 2.4%). Noodle elasticity was highly correlated with starch pasting properties of hot paste viscosity (HPV) (r = 0.81, P < 0.01) and cold paste viscosity (CPV) (r = 0.75, P < 0.01). Noodle rehydration was significantly correlated to the initial swelling temperature of starch (T_i) (r = ‐0.91, P < 0.001) and gelatinization peak temperature (T_p) (r = 0.69, P < 0.05). The findings suggest a potential area of food application for sorghum genotypes of different grain colors. Evaluation of starch properties could be a good starting point for selecting sorghum genotypes with superior noodle‐making properties.     

Relationships Between Some Structures and Functionalities of Starches from Wheat Cultivars Grown in East China

Starches separated from 30 wheat cultivars grown in East China were studied for granule size, amylose content, degree of crystallinity, thermal, pasting, and gel textural properties. Average granule size and amylose content of wheat starches were 15.08–20.8 μm and 29.43–34.19%, respectively. The degree of crystallinity and enthalpy of gelatinization of samples was 29.54–42.12% and 5.2–9.95 J/g, respectively. The gelatinization temperature and pasting temperature were 59.45–62.2°C and 75.40–83.95°C, respectively. There was a wide range of gel hardness values (208.5–426 g). Various significant correlations between functionality and structural parameters were observed. Highly positive correlations were found between the gelatinization temperatures. Gelatinization peak temperature was significantly correlated to hardness of starch gels (r = –0.374, P < 0.05). Significant correlations were observed between amylose content and breakdown viscosity (r = –0.483, P < 0.01), hardness (r = 0.373, P < 0.05), and cohesiveness (r = 0.378, P < 0.05). Many significant correlations between the various pasting parameters were observed. The average granule size was positively correlated to peak viscosity, trough viscosity, and final viscosity (r = 0.369, 0.381, and 0.398, respectively, P < 0.05).     

Diversity of Starch Pasting Properties in Iranian Hexaploid Wheat Landraces

Wheat landraces possess a wide diversity in starch physical properties that could be useful in breeding for improved quality of specific products, such as various types of Asian noodles. The pasting properties (using a Rapid Visco-Analyser [RVA]) and flour swelling volume (FSV, using silver nitrate to inactivate α-amylase activity) of wholemeal, were measured for 242 hexaploid accessions of Iranian landrace wheat. FSV values and the peak viscosities were positively correlated (r = 0.73***). FSV values in the landraces ranged from 8.3 to 15.9 mL/g and peak viscosities ranged from 139 to 305 RVA units (RVU). In comparison, FSV of cvs. Eradu and Klasic were 18.6 and 15.0 mL/g, and peak viscosities were 355 and 303 RVU, respectively. Of the landraces, Iranian Wheat Accession (IWA) 8602488 had the highest peak viscosity (305 RVU) and exceptionally high hot- and cool-paste viscosities. Two accessions, IWA 8602430 and 8600544, displayed pasting characteristics considered desirable for high-quality Japanese white-salted noodles. Four landraces were identified that had starch with unusually high resistance to shearthinning. Texture profile analysis was done on the wholemeal gels formed in the RVA canister. The variation in parameters such as hardness, chewiness, and adhesiveness in the landraces greatly exceeded that in the cultivars. The hot-paste viscosity, breakdown, setback, and final viscosity values, but not the peak viscosity or FSV, were highly significantly correlated with the hardness, chewiness, and adhesiveness of the gel. The Iranian landraces appear to present useful genetic variation for developing wheats for special uses.     

Pan Bread and Chinese White Salted Noodle Qualities of Chinese Winter Wheat Cultivars and Their Relationship with Gluten Protein Fractions

Improvement of food processing quality has become a major breeding objective in China. Nineteen Chinese leading winter wheat cultivars with improved quality and two Australian cultivars with high bread and noodle-making qualities were sown in four locations for two years to investigate dough properties, pan bread, and Chinese white salted noodle (CWSN) qualities, and their association with the quantity of protein fractions. The results indicated that genotype, environment, and genotype-by-environment interaction significantly affected most of quality traits and amount of protein fractions. Genotype mainly determined the quantity of gluten protein fractions and pan bread quality parameters, while environment was the most important source of variation for the noodle quality parameters. Chinese cultivars were characterized by acceptable protein content (11.1–13.4%), medium to strong dough strength (maximum resistance 176.9–746.5 BU), medium to poor dough extensibility (166.5–216.4 mm), fair to very good pan bread qualities, and good to very good CWSN qualities. Gliadin contributed more in quantity to protein content (r = 0.80, P < 0.001), however, glutenin and its subgroups were more important to dough strength. The quantity of glutenin, HMW-GS, and LMW-GS were highly and significantly correlated with dough strength-related traits such as farinograph development time, stability, extensigraph maximum resistance, and extension area (r = 0.70–0.91, 0.65–0.89, and 0.70–0.91, respectively; P < 0.001). The quantity of LMW-GS could explain 82.8% of the total variation of dough maximum resistance. The quantity of gliadin and the ratio of HMW-GS to LMW-GS determined dough extensibility (r = 0.75 and r = –0.59, respectively; P < 0.001 and P < 0.01, respectively). Higher quantity of glutenin and lower ratio of gliadin to glutenin resulted in higher bread score with r = 0.70 (P < 0.001) and r = –0.74 (P < 0.001), respectively. However, protein content and its fractions have a moderate undesirable effect on CWSN parameters such as color, firmness, and taste. Therefore, both allelic variation and quantity of storage protein fractions should be considered in breeding cultivars with improved pan bread making quality.     

Prediction of Specific Japanese Sponge Cake Volume Using Pasting Properties of Flour

In Japanese soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) breeding programs, protein content (PC), and specific surface area (SSA) of flour have been used as important factors for the baking quality of Japanese sponge cake. We proposed batter pasting viscosity (BPV) as a parameter to predict the baking quality of Japanese sponge cake. BPV was measured using a Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA) with a modified heating profile. Twenty soft wheat samples from the 2006‐07 season and 22 from the 2007‐08 season, including Japanese soft wheat cultivars, advanced breeders' lines, and Western White (WW) imported from the United States, were milled and evaluated for solvent retention capacity (SRC) values of four solvents, batter pasting properties, flour pasting properties, PC, SSA, and specific cake volume (SCV) to investigate their relationships. BPV was the most strongly correlated of the parameters to SCV (r = –0.90, P < 0.001). Stepwise multiple regression analysis selected BPV and minimum viscosity (MV) of flour pasting as significant independent variables to predict SCV (corrected R² = 0.848). The variability in BPV related to cake batter expansion was highly explained by PC and sucrose SRC (corrected R² = 0.854, P < 0.001). MV was correlated to SSA (r = 0.56, P < 0.001) and might be related to the prevention of sponge cake shrinkage during baking.     

Albumin Significantly Affects Pasting and Textural Characteristics of Rice Flour

The influence of albumin on the pasting and rheological properties of rice flour was investigated. Albumin was removed from the flour of three rice cultivars (Amaroo, Opus, and Langi) by water extraction and the pasting profile of the albumin‐depleted flour was analyzed using the Rapid ViscoAnalyser (RVA). Removal of albumin resulted in a significant (P < 0.5) decline in all the pasting parameters measured. When the extracted albumin was added to pure rice starch, exactly opposite trends occurred. The concentration of albumin in rice starch had a positive linear relationship with all pasting parameters measured. When the gels formed after RVA analyses were analyzed using the TA‐TX2 texture analyzer, the concentration of albumin had a positive linear relationship with hardness, but a near linear negative relationship with adhesiveness. The presence of albumin in rice starch slowed the uptake of water by starch in the initial stages of cooking, but the water uptake accelerated in later stages, and the final water absorption was higher in the samples containing albumin than in pure starch. The water‐soluble nature of albumin suggests that protein‐water‐starch interactions could be responsible for its effect on the physical properties of rice.     

Alkaline Processing (Nixtamalization) of White Mexican Corn Hybrids for Tortilla Production: Significance of Corn Physicochemical Characteristics and Process Conditions

Five white corn hybrids were processed (nixtamalized) using 10 different processing conditions; tortillas were prepared to establish relationships between corn composition, physical characteristics, and nixtamalization process or product properties. Corn hybrids were characterized by proximate analysis and by measuring Stenvert hardness, Wisconsin breakage, percent floaters, TADD overs, thousand‐kernel weight, and test weight. Corn characteristics were correlated with process and product variables (effluent dry matter loss and pH; nixtamal moisture and color; masa moisture, color, and texture; and tortilla moisture, color, and rollability). Process and product variables such as corn solid loss, nixtamal moisture, masa texture, and tortilla color were influenced not only by processing parameters (cook temperature, cook time, and steep time) but also depended on corn characteristics. Significant regression equations were developed for nixtamalization dry matter loss (P < 0.05, r² = 0.79), nixtamal moisture (P < 0.05, r² = 0.78), masa gumminess (P < 0.05, r² = 0.78), tortilla texture (P < 0.05, r² = 0.77), tortilla moisture (P < 0.05, r² = 0.80), tortilla calcium (P < 0.05, r² = 0.93), and tortilla color a value (P < 0.05, r² = 0.87).     

Influence of Annealing on Gel Properties of Mung Bean Starch

Mung bean starch gels (8% solids) were prepared after annealing at 45–60°C for 1–24 hr, and the relationship between the physical properties of gels and the swelling power (SP) and solubility of starch was investigated. The SP and solubility decreased with increasing annealing temperature and time, mostly in the first 6 hr. The solubles were mainly composed of amylose. Gel hardness at a 5 mm depth of annealed starch was larger than that of native starch, and gel hardness increased as SP decreased (r = ‐0.94). Upon continued compression, the yield force of gel showed a different function. Above SP of ≈12.5, the yield force of annealed starch gels decreased, but at <12.5 the yield force increased with increasing SP. Both granular rigidity and extent of packing appeared to determine the yield force. Although annealing increased the gel hardness, α‐amylase digestibility of gel was not affected. Pasting analysis in the Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) revealed that annealing increased pasting temperature. A pasting peak was found only in 45 and 50°C annealed starches. Overall paste viscosities of the starches annealed at >55°C were lower than that of the control starch. Final viscosities in RVA were correlated with the yield force of gel (r = 0.99).     

Use of Mixolab in Predicting Rice Quality

Mixolab is a new instrument with capability to measure starch pasting properties on actual dough. It characterizes dough rheological behavior using a dual constraints of mixing and temperature. Rice samples (183) collected from 15 provinces across China were tested to determine the possibility of using Mixolab in predicting rice quality. Mixolab measurements, torque (Nm) at different mixing and heating stages (C1 to C5) were compared with rice quality characteristics (gelatinization temperature and consistency, amylose and protein contents), Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA) parameters and sensory assessments scores of cooked rice. Our results showed that Mixolab parameters were good indicators of amylose and protein content and quality suggested by significant correlations among Mixolab parameters, and between Mixolab and RVA measurements. Based on a subsample of 30 rice cultivars, correlation coefficients between the Mixolab parameter C4 and sensory assessment characteristics of palatability and total sensory score was negatively significant (P < 0.05). C_b (C3 – C4) was also significantly correlated with flavor (P < 0.05). The rice samples that gave high palatability and total sensory scores had low C4 values and low amylose contents. The cooked rice with high flavor had high values of C_b and GT but low protein content. It is possible to determine physicochemical properties of rice flour and sensory characteristics of cooked rice using Mixolab parameters.     

Physicochemical and Rheological Properties of Chinese Soft Wheat Flours and Their Relationships with Cookie‐Making Quality

The relationship of solvent retention capacity (SRC) values with four solvents, alveograph and farinograph properties, and cookie‐baking performance was evaluated with 20 Chinese soft wheat genotypes, including four cultivars and 16 advanced lines grown in the 2009–2010 season. Significant positive correlations were observed between water SRC (WSRC), sodium carbonate SRC (SOSRC), lactic acid SRC, and sucrose SRC (SUSRC) values. WSRC, SUSRC, and SOSRC showed significant positive correlations with farinograph water absorption (WA), alveograph P (tenacity), and P/L (ratio of tenacity to extensibility). Cookie diameter was significantly correlated with wet gluten (r = –0.491, P < 0.05), WSRC (r = –0.882, P < 0.001), SUSRC (r = –0.620, P < 0.01), SOSRC (r = –0.712, P < 0.001), P (r = –0.787, P < 0.001), L (r = 0.616, P < 0.01), P/L (r = –0.766, P < 0.001) and WA (r = –0.620, P < 0.01), respectively. SRC values were effective predictors of cookie quality in Chinese soft wheat. Alveograph parameters were more closely correlated to cookie quality than were farinograph parameters.     

Storage Stability of Flour‐Blasted Brown Rice

Brown rice was blasted with rice flour rather than sand in a sand blaster to make microperforations so that water could easily penetrate the brown rice endosperm and cook the rice in a shorter time. The flour‐blasted American Basmati brown rice, long‐grain brown rice, and parboiled long‐grain brown rice samples were stored in Ziploc storage bags under atmospheric conditions and in vacuum‐packed bags. They were periodically tested for over 10 months for changes in water absorption, free fatty acid (FFA), peroxide value (POV), viscosity changes of flour using the Rapid ViscoAnalyser (RVA), and texture of whole cooked kernel using a texture analyzer during cooking. Flour‐blasted brown rice absorbed less water but needed less cooking time than its counterpart that was not flour‐blasted. There was an increase in FFA, POV, peak viscosity (PV), final viscosity (FV), breakdown viscosity (BD), and setback viscosity (SB) during storage of flour‐blasted brown rice for 300 days, but no change was observed in texture (hardness, gumminess) and water absorption. The combined coefficient of correlation (including all types of rice) between FFA and FV is r = 0.86 and between FFA and SB is r = 0.90 at P < 0.0001.     

Relationship Between Physicochemical Properties of Wheat Flour,Wheat Protein Composition,and Textural Properties of Cooked Chinese White Salted Noodles

Physicochemical properties and protein composition of 39 selected wheat flour samples were evaluated and correlated with the textural properties of Chinese hard‐bite white salted noodles. Flour samples were analyzed for their protein and wet gluten contents, sedimentation volume, starch pasting properties, and dough mixing properties by farinograph and extensigraph. Molecular weight distribution of wheat flour proteins was determined with size‐exclusion (SE) HPLC, SDS‐PAGE, and acid‐PAGE. Textural properties of Chinese hard‐bite white salted noodles were determined through texture profile analysis (TPA). Hardness, springiness, gumminess, and chewiness of cooked noodles were found to be related to the dough mixing properties. Both protein content and protein composition were found to be related to TPA parameters of noodles. The amount of total flour protein was positively correlated to hardness, gumminess, and chewiness of noodles. The absolute amounts of different peak proteins obtained from SE‐HPLC data showed positive correlations with the hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and springiness of noodles. The proportions of these peak proteins were, however, not significantly related to texture parameters. The proportions of low‐molecular‐weight glutenins/gliadins and albumins/globulins, as observed from SDS‐PAGE, were correlated positively and negatively, respectively, to the hardness, gumminess, and chewiness of cooked noodles. Among the alcohol‐soluble proteins (from acid‐PAGE data), β‐gliadins showed strong correlations with the texture properties of cooked noodles. For the selected flour samples, the total protein content of flour had a stronger relationship with the noodle texture properties than did the relative proportion of different protein subgroups. Prediction equations were developed for TPA parameters of cooked noodles with SE‐HPLC and rapid visco analysis data of the 30 flour samples, and it was found that about 75% of the variability in noodle hardness, gumminess, and chewiness values could be explained by protein composition and flour pasting properties combined together. About 50% of the variations in cohesiveness and springiness were accounted for by these prediction equations.     

Rice amylopectin fine structure variability affects starch digestion properties

The possibility to identify or develop new rice cultivars with low glycemic response was investigated. Twelve rice cultivars with a narrow range of amylose contents were selected based on their wide variation in rapid viscoanalyzer (RVA) pasting breakdown to study the relationship between starch digestibility and amylopectin fine structure and pasting properties. Rice flour samples were cooked for in vitro digestibility analysis using the standard Englyst assay. RVA was performed for pasting properties of starches. Results showed that rapidly digestible starch (RDS) was highly and negatively correlated (r = -0.86, p < 0.01; r = -0.81, p < 0.01) with FrI long and FrII intermediate/short debranched amylopectin linear chains, respectively, and positively correlated (r = 0.79; p < 0.01) with FrIII very short linear chains. Slowly digestible (SDS) starch was positively correlated (r = 0.80, p < 0.01; 0.76, p < 0.01) with FrI and FrII, respectively, and negatively correlated (r = -0.76, p < 0.01) with FrIII. RVA breakdown viscosity was positively correlated (r = 0.88, p < 0.01) with RDS and negatively correlated (r = -0.89, p < 0.01) with SDS. Thus, the RVA method potentially could be used as a screening tool for starch digestion properties. This study reveals a molecular basis in amylopectin fine structure variability for starch digestion properties in rice cultivars and could have value in identifying slowly digesting cultivars as well as developing a breeding strategy to produce low glycemic rice cultivars. Keywords: Rice; starch; RVA; amylopectin; digestibility.     

Physicochemical Properties of Flours that Relate to Sorghum Couscous Quality

Flours from eight sorghum cultivars were evaluated for their couscous-making ability with the objective of finding predictive relationships between flour physicochemical properties and couscous quality. Chemical composition, physical characteristics, and pasting and gelatinization properties of the flours were determined. A laboratory procedure was used to prepare couscous. Couscous properties were evaluated and compared to a laboratory-prepared and a commercial durum wheat couscous. Hard grain produced flours containing a high proportion of coarse particles with low ash and high damaged starch content and yielded a higher proportion of desirable sorghum couscous granules. A variety of colors ranging from brown to yellow were obtained when flours were processed into couscous. Cooked sorghum couscous stickiness was positively correlated (r = 0.89, P < 0.01) with the amount of damaged starch in flour. Cooked couscous hardness correlated positively (r = 0.79, P < 0.05) with apparent amylose content of flour and correlated negatively (r = -0.75, P < 0.05) with flour peak viscosity. Durum wheat couscous was lighter and had more yellow color than sorghum couscous. Sorghum couscous was stickier and harder than durum wheat couscous. Addition of 2% oil to the cooking water considerably improved the texture of some sorghum couscous to a level comparable to that of durum wheat couscous.     

A Comparative Study on Pasting and Hydration Properties of Native Rice Starches and Their Mixtures

Four rice starches were isolated from waxy and nonwaxy rice cultivars collected from different places in China. Individual rice starches were examined, along with their corresponding mixtures in different ratios, in terms of pasting and hydration properties. Analysis by micro‐viscoamylography (MVAG) showed that waxy rice starch and its blends had higher peak viscosity (PV), breakdown (BD), and setback (SB) than the remaining starches and mixtures. Apparent amylose content (AC) was 16.95–29.85% in nonwaxy individual rice starches and 13.69–25.07% in rice starch blends. Incorporating waxy rice starch (25%) significantly decreased the AC. AC correlated negatively with swelling power (SP) (r = ‐0.925, P < 0.01). SP exhibited nonlinear relationship (r² = 0.8204) with water solubility (WS) and both increased with temperature. The correlation showed that WS is also an index of starch characteristics and the granules rigidity affected the granule swelling potential. The results show that turbidity of gelatinized starch suspensions stored at 4 ± 0.5°C generally increased during storage up to five days.     

Pasting and Thermal Properties of Flours from Oat Lines with High and Typical Amounts of β‐Glucan

Experimental oat lines high in β‐glucan (6–7.8%) and traditional lines (3.9–5.7% β‐glucan) were used to evaluate the effect of β‐glucan on pasting (by rapid viscoanalysis) and thermal properties (by differential scanning calorimetry) of oat flours. Significant correlations established between β‐glucan concentration and the pasting parameters after amylolysis demonstrated the role of β‐glucans in oat pasting. The relative decrease of peak viscosity (PV) observed after enzymatic removal of β‐glucans was correlated with β‐glucan concentration (r = 0.880, P < 0.010) and reconfirmed their contribution to pasting. A significant increase of PV with β‐glucan concentration obtained under conditions of either autolysis (deionized water used for dispersion) (r = 0.89, P < 0.010) or inhibition (silver nitrate solution used for dispersion) (r = 0.91, P < 0.001) might be explained by an increase in water retention capacity caused by the β‐glucans. Predictive models of β‐glucan concentration based on the whole pasting profile or selected profile regions were developed using partial least squares (PLS) regression.Prediction of β‐glucan based on the whole profile obtained in the silver nitrate solution was the most effective (r = 0.93, correlation coefficient of predicted vs. analyzed β‐glucans, P < 0.050). No correlations were observed between the thermal properties of oat flours and the β‐glucan concentration.     

Starch Pasting and Textural Attributes of Elbow Macaroni as Impacted by Dough Moisture,Dough Mixing Time,and Macaroni Cooking Time

The effects of dough moisture, mixing time, and cooking time on uncooked and cooked elbow macaroni by means of starch pasting and macaroni textural characteristics were investigated. In conventional elbow macaroni production, cooking time was found to have significant contributions to cooked macaroni starch pasting properties, indicating that degree of starch cook dependent on cooking time was the main influence on cooked macaroni starch pasting phenomena. Dough moisture also showed some significant (P < 0.05) relationships with cooked macaroni starch pasting properties; however, mixing time did not show significant effect. Cooked macaroni starch pasting properties showed significantly (P < 0.05) high correlations with cooked macaroni firmness and stickiness. Cooking time was the only major variable contributing to variations in cooked elbow macaroni starch and consequently in pasting and texture characteristics. Cooking time was highly related to firmness and stickiness of cooked elbow macaroni (P < 0.0001, R² = 0.8148; P < 0.0001, R² = 0.6215, respectively). In addition, dough moisture had a slight significant (P < 0.05) effect on cooked elbow macaroni firmness and stickiness. Cooked elbow macaroni firmness and stickiness were found to be highly correlated (P = 0.0001, R² = 0.8459). Increases in firmness increased cooked elbow macaroni stickiness. As a result, when elbow macaroni was cooked for shorter times, firmer and stickier macaroni was obtained.     

Physicochemical Properties of Australian Flours Influencing the Texture of Yellow Alkaline Noodles

Flour properties of 25 Australian wheat cultivars were examined for their relationship to alkaline noodle quality. Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) analyses of flours showed that RVA breakdown and final viscosity determined in both water and dilute sodium carbonate were significantly related to the alkaline noodle firmness, elasticity, and surface smoothness. Flour swelling volume (FSV) of flours was negatively correlated with alkaline noodle firmness and elasticity, and positively correlated with surface smoothness of cooked noodles. Use of a dilute sodium carbonate solution led to overall increases in both paste viscosity and FSV. High FSV and low RVA final viscosity values were associated with both the softest noodles and with cultivars containing a null allele for granule-bound starch synthase on chromosome 4A. Flour protein content and SDS sedimentation volumes were significantly related to noodle texture. The relationship between protein content and noodle firmness was dependent on the Null4A status of the flours and suggested an interaction between starch and protein in determining noodle texture. Multiple regression analysis using flour protein and FSV accounted for 76% of the variation in alkaline noodle firmness. A speculative model of noodle structure was developed based on a concept of the cooked noodle as a composite material.