Bionomics and importance of two species ofChaetocnema in rice yellow mottle virus transmission in lowland rice in Tanzania

Regular samplings were done of two important vectors in farmers’ fields during the 1999/2000 and 2000/01 rice seasons at crop stages susceptible to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) on a traditional rice variety (‘Supa’) under rainfed lowland conditions to provide information on the bionomics and importance of these vectors in the disease transmission. The population ofChaetocnema sp. (nr.varicornis Jacoby) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was significantly higher in hotspot than non-hotspot areas. However, there was no significant difference in theC. pulla Chapuis population between these two areas. In general, theChaetocnema sp. population was higher than that ofC. pulla, and both vectors reached the peak of their population at 63 days after planting. Early planting in the hotspot areas is suggested as a disease management strategy. Both vectors are naturally infective andChaetocnema sp. proved more efficient thanC. pulla in the transmission of RYMV.     

Powdered neem seed and cake for management of the banana weevil,cosmopolites sordidus, and parasitic nematodes

Field trials were conducted in Kenya with ‘Nakyetengu’, an East African highland banana cultivar (AAA-EA), highly susceptible to banana pests. Regardless of soil fertility levels, incorporation around the plant base of powdered neem(Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) seed or cake at 60-100 g/mat at 4-month intervals, gave better control of the banana weevil,Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar), and of parasitic nematodes, than that achieved with soil application of Furadan 5G (carbofuran) at 60 g/mat at 6-month intervals. Compared with untreated control, fruit yield in most of the neem treatments was significantly higher, particularly during the second cycle of crop production. Neem application conferred a net economic gain, whereas Furadan application proved uneconomical. Application of powdered neem seed or cake at higher rates (200–400 g/mat) at 6-month intervals caused phytotoxicity, resulting in drying up of banana plants before fruiting, or in ‘chokethroat’,i.e., inflorescence emergence failure.     

Efficacy of neem seed derivatives against nematodes affecting banana

Soil applications of powdered neem seed or neem cake at 100 g/plant at planting and, subsequently, at 3-month intervals, reduced the populations ofPratylenchus goodeyi Sher & Allen andMeloidogyne spp. on par with Furadan 5G (carbofuran) applied at 40 g/plant at planting and then at 6-month intervals to banana plants grown in 100-/ containers with controlled levels of banana nematode infestations. Eight months after planting, banana plants treated with powdered neem cake, seed or kernel or with neem oil had 4 to 95 times fewer parasitic nematodes than the untreated control. However, only neem cake powder or neem seed powder applied to unpared banana plants kept the nematode population below the economic threshold.     

Efficacy of new EC formulations of neem oil and pungam oil for the management of sheath rot disease of rice

Neem oil (NO) and pungam oil (PO) based emulsifiable concentrate (EC) formulations,viz., neem oil 60 EC (acetic acid) [NO 60 EC(A)], neem oil 60 EC (citric acid) [NO 60 EC(C] and neem oil + pungam oil 60 EC (citric acid) [NO+PO 60 EC(C)], which had been developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, were evaluated for their efficacy against sheath rot of rice. All three formulations effectively inhibited the mycelial growth of the pathogen,Sarocladium oryzae, underin vitro conditions. There was no significant difference between efficacy of the freshly prepared and stored formulations in arresting the growth ofS. oryzae; efficacy was maintained even after 9 months of storage. These formulations effectively controlled rice sheath rot and led to increased yield in five field trials. Among the various treatments, the formulation NO 60 EC(A) achieved the highest grain yield in four out of five field trials, with a pooled mean grain yield of 4684 kg/havs 3882 kg/ha in the control. NO 60 EC(A) achieved the maximum cost-benefit ratio of 1:4.8, followed by NO+PO 60 EC(C), with 1:3.3.     

Characterization of two races of the stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) in Israel

Two distinct races ofDitylenchus dipsaci in Israel were identified: one, which infects and damages onion and garlic, reproduces on pea, but does not infect phalaris grass; and a second, which infects and damages phalaris—and, probably, also ‘Saia’ oats—but fails to infect onion and garlic. A new ‘garlic’ race of the nematode does not appear to have been introduced into Israel together with the ‘Lavinia’ garlic cultivar, as previously speculated, but rather the introduced Lavinia clone is highly susceptible to the existing ‘onion and garlic’ race ofD. dipsaci.     

The potential of the hatay population ofPhytoseiulus persimilis to control the carmine spider miteTetranychus cinnabarinus in strawberry in Silifke - Icel, Turkey

The Hatay population of the predatory mitePhytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot was released into a commercial field of cv. ‘Chandler’ strawberries for the control ofTetranychus cinnabarinus Boisduval (Acari: Phytoseiidae: Tetranychidae) in 2000 and 2001 in Silifke county of Icel on the East Mediterranean coast of Turkey. In 2000, populations ofT. cinnabarinus were recorded in the field from the beginning of March in most plots, and increased gradually until mid-May.T. cinnabarinus populations declined to very low levels in all predator release plots approximately 2 weeks after reaching a peak. In general, predator populations rose linearly as the population densities of spider mites increased until mid-May.P. persimilis numbers peaked during the period 16–23 May. A similar scenario developed in 2001, but because of the relatively high number ofT. cinnabarinus in all plots at the beginning of the experiment, bothT. cinnabarinus andP. persimilis peaked almost one month earlier than in 2000. In both years, the Hatay population ofP. persimilis demonstrated good potential for the control ofT. cinnabarinus in field-grown strawberry in the Silifke region of Icel. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Sept. 19, 2002.     

The potential of combining <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pasteuria penetrans</Emphasis> and neem (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Azadirachta indica</Emphasis>) formulations as a management system for root-knot nematodes on tomato

Initial applications of 10⁴ spores g⁻¹ of Pasteuria penetrans, and dried neem cake and leaves at 3 and 2% w:w, respectively, were applied to soil in pots. Juveniles of Meloidogyne javanica were added immediately to the pots (500, 5,000 or 10,000) before planting 6-week-old tomato seedlings. The tomatoes were sampled after 64 days; subsequently a second crop was grown for 59 days and a third crop for 67 days without further applications of P. penetrans and neem. There was significantly less root-galling in the P. penetrans combined with neem cake treatment at the end of the third crop and this treatment also had the greatest effect on the growth of the tomato plants. At the end of the third crop, 30% of the females were infected with P. penetrans in those treatments where spores had been applied at the start of the experiment. The effects of neem leaves and neem cake on the nematode population did not persist through the crop sequences but the potential for combining the amendments with a biological control agent such as P. penetrans is worthy of further evaluation.     

Development and fecundity ofSitobion avenae on some wheat cultivars under laboratory conditions

Nymphal development time and fecundity ofSitobion avenae (F.) (Homoptera: Aphididae) were determined on nine widespread wheat varieties cultivated in Tekirdağ Region in Turkey. Tests were carried out in controlled environment chambers (25±1°C, 65±5% r.h.; 16:8, L:D). Development time (±S.E.) ranged from 5.75±0.25 to 7.20±0.20 days. Fecundity per female ofS. avenae was found to be the highest (12.87±1.50) on wheat cv. ‘Sana’. In this investigation cvs. ‘MV-17’, ‘Miryana’, ‘Pehlivan’ and ‘Saraybosna’ were particularly resistant againstS. avenae. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting July 8, 2002.     

Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes for biocontrol of the european corn borer,Ostrinia nubilalis, on sweet corn in Israel

The potential of entomopathogenic nematodes for biological control of the European corn borer (ECB),Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), was evaluated under laboratory, screenhouse and field conditions. The ‘All’ and ‘Mexican’ strains ofSteinernema carpocapsae (Weiser) and the ‘HP88’ strain ofHeterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar were compared in both dose response assays (5, 50 and 500 infective juveniles [IJ] per petri dish containing five 5th-instar ECB eggs; 72 h of incubation) and exposure time assays (3, 6 and 9 h of incubation). In the dose response assays the highest rates of ECB killing resulted from infestation with the Mexican strain ofS. carpocapsae. In the exposure time assays there were no significant differences between the killing rates of the three nematode strains. Sweet corn plants(Zea mays var.saccharata) grown in a screenhouse, were infested with ECB neonates and 4 days later sprayed with a suspension of the Mexican strain ofS. carpocapsae (50,000 IJ per plant). The number of ECB larvae found on treated corn plants after one week was significantly (P=0.05) lower (3- to 5-fold) than the number found on untreated plants. Similar treatment in the field significantly reduced the rate of economic ear damage from 20% to 5%. Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization. No. 2260-E, 1997 series     

A during-infection spray strategy using sulphur compounds,copper, silicon and a new formulation of potassium bicarbonate for primary scab control in organic apple production

In a field experiment conducted over two growing seasons, the effectiveness and phytotoxicity of inorganic fungicides such as sulphur, lime sulphur, copper, silicon and Armicarb (a new formulation of potassium bicarbonate) was compared with water for the control of primary apple scab infections in Belgium on high, medium and low scab-susceptible cultivars (cvs ‘Pinova’, ‘Pirouette’ and ‘Reinette des Capucins’, respectively). In order to drastically reduce the amount of fungicide applied in the orchard, two approaches were used: (1) a strategy involving spraying during the infection process, before fungal penetration and (2) a tunnel sprayer machine for treatment applications. Under field conditions highly favourable for disease, low rates of elemental sulphur (31.8 and 38.6 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in 2005 and 2006, respectively) combined with low rates of copper (2.1 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in both years) provided the best scab control and reduced scab severity on the fruits of cv. ‘Pinova’ by 97 and 98% compared with water control in 2005 and 2006, respectively. Lime sulphur was much more effective than wettable sulphur and appeared to be efficient at temperatures below 10°C, but its effectiveness against apple scab decreased if the treatments were applied 12–24 h later than in the ‘during-infection’ spray strategy. Armicarb used alone significantly reduced apple scab severity on the leaves and fruits of the three cultivars compared with the water control. Its effectiveness was as good as wettable sulphur applied using the same timing and dosage. Silicon reduced apple scab on fruits very slightly, but not on leaves. The amounts of wettable sulphur, lime sulphur, copper, silicon and potassium bicarbonate used in this experiment to control apple scab were not phytotoxic, did not increase fruit russet, did increase the yield of each cultivar and did not affect summer density of the beneficial Typhlodromus pyri. The potential and limitations of ‘during-infection’ spraying as a protection strategy against apple scab in organic farming are discussed.     

Physiologic races ofFusarium oxysporum f.sp.melonis in the southeastern anatolia region of turkey and varietal reactions to races of the pathogen

Thirty-four isolates ofFusarium oxysporum f.sp.melonis (F.o.m.) obtained from 205 fields in melon-producing areas in the southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey were identified on the basis of colony morphology and pathogenicity by the root dip method. In this region the mean prevalence of wilt disease was 88.1% and the mean incidence of disease was 47.5%. Physiologic races 0, 1, 2, and 1,2 of the pathogen were determined by their reactions on differential melon cultivars ‘Charentais T,’ ‘Isoblon’, ‘Isovac’ and ‘Margot’ in the greenhouse. Race 1,2, representating 58.8% (20/34) of all isolates, was widely distributed. Of the other pathogenic isolates, eight were identified as race 0, five as race 1, and one as race 2. This is the first report of physiologic races ofF.o.m. in Turkey. Of 44 melon cultivars tested in the greenhouse for resistance toF.o.m. races, 36 were found to be moderately resistant to race 0, 17 were susceptible to race 1,2, 34.1% were highly resistant to race 1, and 52.2% had moderate resistance to race 2. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting July 16, 2002.     

Species of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oligonychus</Emphasis> infesting date palm cultivars in the Southern Arava Valley of Israel

In a study of date fruit damage caused byOligonychus spp., we investigated whether the cultivar affects phenology, and on what hosts the mites over-winter. Samples were taken from ‘Deglet Noor’, ‘Barhi’ and ‘Medjool’ trees from mid-April through mid-September during the years 1999–2002. In the ground-cover mites were monitored by collecting Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) under each sampling tree. Over 99% of the mites collected on Deglet Noor and Barhi fruit were identified asO. afrasiaticus. Mean population levels ofO. afrasiaticus reached ten mites or more (initiation of infestation) on Medjool in the second half of May, whereas on Deglet Noor this did not occur before the first week of July. On Barhi the initiation of infestation varied between plots and years, ranging from the second half of May to the beginning of July, but always occurred earlier than Deglet Noor. Mite populations on the pinnae remained low from June through October, not exceeding seven mites per pinna, whereas on fruit strands they reached peak populations of approximately 4000 mites per strand. The sex ratio (proportion of females) ofO. afrasiaticus on fruit of all three cultivars was highly female-biased, usually above 0.85. During winter,O. afrasiaticus was found on Bermuda grass in the orchard ground-cover as well as on fronds of all three cultivars. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Jan. 30, 2003.     

The antifeedant effect of neem seed kernel extract and azadirachtin on nymphs ofEyprepocnemis plorans

Acridids belonging to different species and families exhibit large differences in their response to neem components. In this context the antifeedant effect of a methanolic neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) and of azadirachtin (AZA) on fourth-instar nymphs of the acrididEyprepocnemis plorans Charpentier (Saltatoria:Acrididae) was investigated. Nymphs were offered either saccharose-impregnated filter paper disks or leaves of broad beans, treated with neem components. The amount of substrate consumed was determined by weighing the filter paper or by measuring the leaf area. On filter paper both NSKE and AZA were highly active down to the 10⁻⁴% treatment. In the leaf treatment, however, AZA was definitely more active than NSKE, with 100% deterrence at 10⁻⁴% and 10⁻²%, respectively. The methanolic NSKE was somewhat more active than the commercial preparation ‘Neemark’.     

Microbiological and Chemical Analysis of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Extracts: New Data on Antimicrobial Activity

The antimicrobial effects of extracts of neem seed (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) were investigated using microbial growth inhibition assays. A laboratory-prepared neem seed extract along with a commercially available formulated product, were characterized using HPLC, and shown to be effective against a range of bacteria in an agar diffusion assay. The active ingredient,i.e., the unformulated seed extract of the commercial product, also showed activity and this was further investigated in a biochromatogram, using the sensitive bacteriumBacillus mycoides. Results showed antibacterial activity as three discrete inhibition zones that did not correspond to the R_f of the major neem metabolites, azadirachtin, nimbin and salannin. This suggests that these compounds were not antibacterial. The colony radial growth rates of the fungal pathogens that cause ‘take-all’ and ‘snow mould’ disease were both significantly affected when the commercial, unformulated, neem seed extract was incorporated into the growth medium. Experiments in liquid culture suggested that the effect was fungistatic. Conidial germination of the commercially important obligate pathogenSphaerotheca fuliginea (powdery mildew) was reduced to 11%. The results show that neem seed extracts possess antimicrobial activity with notable effects on some fungal phytopathogens. This Work demonstrates that neem seed extracts have potential for controlling both microbial and insect pests. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Sept. 16,2001.     

Epidemiology and effects of verticillium wilt on yield of olive trees (cvs. Barnea and Souri) irrigated with saline water in Israel

Epidemiology ofVerticillium dahliae on olive trees (cvs. ‘Barnea’ and ‘Souri’) irrigated with saline water was studied over a period of 3 years. Disease incidence in cv. Barnea increased from 18.9% to 40.5% in the first year, while disease severity decreased from 4.2 to 2.4 (on a scale of 2–10). In the first month after pruning of diseased branches (June 1999), disease incidence was 26.9% and it increased to 60.6% by May 2000. No changes in disease severity were observed from this time until the end of the study. In cv. Souri, disease incidence doubled during the 3 years of the study (from 22.1% to 44.8%), and disease severity increased from 2.4 to 2.9. The disease caused significant reduction of yield in cv. Barnea in 1999 and 2000 (48.3% and 12.0%, respectively). In cv. Souri yield was measured only in 2001, where a reduction of 66.8% was observed.V. dahliae was isolated from both diseased and symptomless trees. A significant decrease in the isolation rate ofV. dahliae from diseased cv. Barnea trees occurred between the first year (47.9%) and the third year (5.3%); positive isolations were obtained in all seasons, without differences between seasons. In cv. Souri, the fungus was isolated in significantly higher rates during the winter and spring (55% and 50%, respectively). Our findings strongly support the assumption that natural recovery occurs in cv. Barnea 4–5 years after planting, but not in cv. Souri. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting July 10, 2003.     

Is the parasitization rate of<Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaeretiella rapae</Emphasis> influenced when<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brevicoryne brassicae</Emphasis> feeds on<Emphasis Type="Italic">brassica</Emphasis> plants?

The development time and parasitization rate ofDiaeretiella rapae (M’Intosh) onBrevicoryne brassicae (L.) feeding on differentBrassica cultivars was studied in the laboratory at 20°C. The shortest development time from egg to adult parasitoid was 11.6 days on cabbage cv. ‘Yalova 1’ and the longest was 12.1 days on turnip cv. ‘Antep’ and rapeseed cv. local variety. Females lived significantly longer than males on the host plants used in the study. Females and males had the shortest longevity on rapeseed at 11.1 and 5.1 days, respectively. The highest percent parasitism ofB. brassicae byD. rapae was found on cabbage (40.20%), and the lowest was recorded on turnip (32.64%). Our results demonstrate that parasitism rate could be influenced by the plant quality, probably due to the nutritional status of the aphids or to toxic compounds ingested through the plant. Cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli were found to be suitable plants for the parasitoid, considering the development time of pre-adults, and the parasitization rate ofD. rapae onB. brassicae. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Jan. 23, 2007.     

Effect of apple cultivar and of temperature on the biology and life table parameters of the twospotted spider mite<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus urticae</Emphasis>

Development duration and reproduction rate of the twospotted spider miteTetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae) were studied on five different apple cultivars (‘Amasya’ (local cultivar), ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Starking Delicious’ and ‘Starkrimson Delicious’) at 25°C, 65±10% r.h. and 16:8 L:D. In addition, the same parameters were determined on Golden Delicious leaves at three constant temperatures (20°, 30° and 35°C, 65±10% r.h. and 16:8 L:D) in the laboratory.T. urticae performed better on Granny Smith than on the other cultivars, due mainly to high daily egg production (4.6 eggs/♀/day) and the intrinsic rate of natural increase (r _m , which was 0.243 ♀/♀/day). The lowestr _m was observed on Amasya variety (0.231 ♀/♀/day). Development periods of immature stages ofT. urticae varied from 6.5 to 15.5 days at 35° and 20°C, respectively, for females, and from 5.9 to 14.5 days at 35° and 20°C, respectively, for males. The development thresholds of the eggs and pre-adult stages, respectively, were 10.78° and 8.43°C, and total effective temperatures were 57.80 and 172.41 degree-days. Mean generation time (T _o ) of the population ranged from 9.94 days at 35°C to 25.99 days at 20°C. The net reproduction rate increased from 66.99 ♀/♀ at 20°C to 92.19 ♀/♀ at 25°C, and decreased to 84.34 ♀/♀ at 30°C and to 12.04 ♀/♀ at 35°C. The highest r _m occurred at 30°C (0.302 ♀/♀/day) and the lowest at 20°C (0.161 ♀/♀/day). http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Dec. 19, 2003.     

Toxic culture filtrates produced byCalonectria ilicicola, causal agent of red crown rot of soybean

Eleven soybean cultivars with different levels of susceptibility to virulent isolate SG915 ofCalonectria ilicicola were examined for reaction to metabolites produced by the isolate. When the culture filtrate from isolate SG915 was applied to trifoliates from 11 cultivars, cvs. ‘Cajun’ and ‘Asgrow 7986’ exhibited reduced wilting severity. However, there was no correlation between sensitivity to culture filtrate and susceptibility to the fungal isolate. Wilting severity on cv. ‘Riverside 699’ was greatest when trifoliates were treated with culture filtrates from isolates SG915 (highly virulent) and C31 (less virulent). The dilution end-point for culture filtrates of virulent isolate SG915 was determined to be 1:8. Nonautoclaved culture filtrates caused complete wilt of soybean trifoliates after 36 h, but autoclaved culture filtrates demonstrated a reduced ability to wilt leaves. Electrolyte leakage from treated leaf tissues increased over time regardless of the concentrations of culture filtrate tested. The greatest electrolyte losses were observed during the initial 30 min incubation of leaf tissues. The highest concentration of culture filtrate (50%, v/v) induced more electrolyte loss than the low concentration (10%, v/v) or control. These results suggest that toxic metabolites ofC. ilicicola may be involved in disease development with leaf symptom expression.     

Histological study of giant cells formed by the root-knot nematodeMeloidogyne artiellia as compared withM. hapla andM. javanica in cabbage, turnip and barley

Feeding sites induced by the root-knot nematodeMeloidogyne artiellia in turnip (Brassica rapa), cabbage (Brassica oleracea) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) were examined by light and electron transmission microscopy, and compared with those formed byM. javanica andM. hapla. The feeding cells ofM. artiellia in turnip and cabbage showed hypertrophy, hyperplasia and vacuolization, and became multinucleate giant cells. In contrast to the typical simple-shaped giant cells ofM. javanica andM. hapla, those ofM. artiellia had an amoeboid structure containing ‘protuberances’, which are distinct from previously reported ‘projects’ of giant cells induced byM. incognita in other plants. Protuberances expanding between vascular cells were observed in young and developed giant cells. Since no cell-wall fragments were found at the bases of the protuberances, either by light or electron microscopy, it is strongly indicated that these structures were caused by local expansion of the giant cells rather than by fusion with adjacent cells. The giant cells ofM. artiellia in barley had regular shapes of giant cells without protuberances, and resembled those induced byM. javanica orM. hapla in turnip and cabbage. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Sept. 17, 2006.     

MonitoringPratylenchus thornei densities in SOCL and roots under resistant (Triticum turgidum durum) and susceptible (Triticum aestivum) wheat cultivars

Pratylenchus thornei densities were monitored in field plots of two winter wheat cultivars in a dry farming area of southern Spain. Samples were taken fortnightly during the wheat-growing season and from the following dry fallow. Under bread wheat cv. ‘Yecora’, densities ofP. thornei increased for 5 to 6 months and then were maintained or slightly decreased thereafter, surviving the summer dry fallow in an anhydrobiotic state (78.2% and 85.3% survival in soil and roots, respectively). Under durum wheat cv. ‘Donpedro’, nematode densities decreased over the growing season, although densities within the roots increased during the first 2 months of the wheat-growing period, indicating that nematodes could penetrate the roots of this cultivar but were unable to reproduce. These observations suggest resistance of wheat cv. Donpedro toP. thornei.