Automatic detection of a damaged cutting tool during machining I: method to detect damaged bandsaw teeth during sawing

This paper presents an on-line method for detecting damaged teeth in the bandsaw using acoustic emission (AE) signal energy. The method is based on an analysis of differences in AE energies generated by normal and damaged teeth during sawing. Because of the difference in the amount of sawing, the AE energy was low for sawing by the damaged tooth and high for sawing by the normal tooth immediately after the damaged tooth. The ratio of AE energy for two successive teeth — a normal tooth immediately following a damaged tooth — was much greater than 1, whereas the ratio of AE energy for two successive normal teeth was close to 1. The results demonstrate that the technique using the AE energy ratio for two successive teeth is effective for on-line detection of damaged bandsaw teeth.Part of this paper was presented at the 9th Annual Meeting of the Chugoku Skikoku Branch of the Japan Wood Research Society, Tottori, October 1997     

Theoretical analysis of bandsaw roll-tensioning

Bandsaw roll-tensioning was theoretically analyzed by amplifying Aoyama's fundamental equations. In the analysis the accumulated amount of tension after several roll-stretching passes was expressed as the linear accumulation of the amount of tension at each roll-stretching pass. The same condition was applied for the expression of the accumulated amount of crown back. The relations between the distance from the gullet in the transverse direction of the bandsaw blade to the roll-stretching point and the distance from the gullet in the transverse direction of the bandsaw blade at which the amount of tension becomes maximum, minimum, or zero were clarified. To meet the requisites to adjust the amount of tension at an arbitrary distance in the transverse direction of the bandsaw blade or the amount of crown back, an adjusting procedure was developed. The process of bandsaw roll-tensioning can theoretically be controlled by this procedure.     

Automatic detection of washboarding in bandsaws

This paper presents an on-line method for detecting washboarding generated in bandsaws. It uses a parameter based on the shape of sawing force amplitude distributions. The curve of the probability density function of the parallel sawing force amplitude obeyed a normal distribution for the normal sawn surface, but it changed to an M-shaped distribution when washboarding appeared on the sawn surface of the workpiece. The curve of probability density function of the normal sawing force amplitude obeyed the normal distribution for any sawn surface investigated. The workpiece including a knot did not influence use of the parameter for detecting the appearance of washboarding.     

Effect of Cutting Speed on Surface Quality by Bandsawing

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不同含水率云南松声发射信号特征

【目的】研究不同含水率条件下云南松试件声发射信号的传播规律,探讨含水率对声发射信号波形的响应,为云南松声发射源定位提供依据,为木材内部缺陷无损检测提供基础数据。【方法】以云南松为试验材料,采用NI高速数据采集设备和LabVIEW软件构建云南松试件声发射信号采集平台,利用铅芯折断模拟声发射源,对绝干、气干、生材和饱水4种含水率状态下的试件表面进行声发射信号采集,通过时差法计算信号在4种含水率状态下的平均传播速率,并运用小波分析对声发射信号波形进行分解和重构,根据软阈值量化方法消除各通道系数和经阈值量化后的各高频层系数,去除非主能量信号以便从噪声中析取微弱的声发射信号。【结果】试验中传感器均以接收表面波信号为主;随着含水率增加,云南松试件表面声发射信号波形和平均声速均大幅度衰减,绝干状态下声发射信号时域波形幅值达到±5.2 V,平均声速可达4 208.77 m·s^-1 ,而饱水状态下信号时域波形幅值仅为±0.6 V,平均声速降至1 414.07 m·s^-1 ,气干和生材状态下信号时域波形幅值和平均声速分别为±4、±2 V和 3 331.79 、 2 328.73 m·s^-1 ,且各含水率状态之间平均声速差在876.98~1 003.06 m·s^-1 范围内;小波变换能有效将“淹没”在噪声中的声发射信号析取出来,4种含水率状态下试件声发射信号频域波形范围在40 ~150 kHz之间,且气干状态下波形峰值出现在110 kHz左右,其余3种均在50 kHz左右达到峰值。【结论】含水率增加可显著改变云南松声发射信号和传播特征,其信号波形和平均声速均与含水率降低呈正比;小波变换在信号降噪处理方面具有明显优势,不仅可去除信号中的大量噪音,而且不会破坏有用信号,保证信号完整性,能更大程度降低对不同含水率云南松试件声发射信号的分析误差,为云南松表面声发射源定位研究及内部无损检测给予试验数据支持;作为一种木材声发射信号采集与分析平台,研究结果可为不同含水率云南松受压变形破坏全过程的声发射特征分析提供必要的基础理论依据。     

Plate-type waveguides for detecting acoustic emissions generated by termite attacks

To examine the feasibility of using plate-type waveguides for effective detection of acoustic emissions (AEs) from termite attacks in wood, AEs generated by breaking pencil leads or by termite attacks were detected using an AE sensor with a resonant frequency of 140kHz with steel plates of four different sizes and thickness and three AE sensors without them. The larger plates were associated with larger amplitudes of the artificial AEs. The amplitudes of AEs detected by an AE sensor with a steel plate larger than 30×30mm were greater than the average amplitude of the artificial AEs detected by three AE sensors. When detecting AEs generated by the feeding activity of workers,Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, the cumulative AE events detected by the sensor with a steel plate were much larger than those of the three AE sensors without a plate. Because AE waves are attenuated much less in a steel plate than in wood, it is more effective to attach the AE sensor to wood with a steel plate rather than directly to the wood. These findings suggest that it is feasible to use an AE sensor with a plate-type waveguide for the nondestructive detection of termite attacks in wood.     

Experimental verification of bandsaw roll-tensioning theory

The validity of a bandsaw roll-tensioning theory developed by the author is verified based on a model experiment. It is shown that the actual roll-tensioning process can be clearly explained by this theory. Roll-stretching force transmission coefficients are introduced in this theory. These coefficients, which indicate the magnitude of the compression force parallel to the bandsaw surface at the roll-stretching position, are affected by the thickness of the bandsaw blade, the radius of the bandsaw blade vent at the measurement of tension, and the straightness of the bandsaw blade at the measurement of crown back, among others. For the practical use of this theory, therefore, it is necessary to determine the proper magnitude of these coefficients based on tensioning experiments.     

基于声发射技术模拟蛀木害虫羽化孔洞缺陷检测

【目的】针对木材蛀干害虫羽化孔洞缺陷检测问题,通过对声发射信号的时频分析,研究木材蛀干害虫羽化孔洞缺陷的AE信号特征。【方法】首先,对无孔洞和3种不同尺寸的钻孔缺陷的木材试件,参照ASTM-E976标准采用铅芯折断方式产生AE源,通过采样频率为500 kHz的2通道木材声发射信号采集系统获取原始AE信号。然后,对原始AE信号进行降噪滤波,再对滤波后的信号进行小波分解并重构AE波形,分析孔径对AE信号频率分布的影响。最后,采用信号相关性分析法和时差定位法,计算AE信号的传播速率,进而分析羽化孔径对传播速率的影响。【结果】AE信号通过无孔洞、5 mm孔洞、8 mm孔洞、15 mm孔洞缺陷,AE信号的主频率分别为38、43、51、117 kHz,AE信号传播的平均速率分别为1 380.7、1 067.3、848.6、437.1 m/s。【结论】AE信号在不同孔径缺陷的木材试件传播时,随着孔洞缺陷的增大,AE信号的幅值发生明显衰减,AE信号的主频率增大,AE信号传播的平均速率减小。为了验证试验结果和结论,找了具有天然蛀干害虫羽化孔洞缺陷的木材试件,孔洞直径约为20 mm,使用相同的方法采集和处理AE信号,AE信号通过天然蛀干害虫羽化孔洞缺陷的主频率为121 kHz,AE信号传播的平均速率为324 m/s。     

木材纵横向切削过程中的声发射特性

研究了木材纵横向切削过程中的声发射特性。结果表明,切削方向与纤维方向之间的夹角,对切削过程中的声发射活动影响显著;当夹角为0°时声发射最强,90°时声发射最小;声发射强度随木材表面粗糙度的减小而逐渐增大。通过获得的试验数据,可进一步完善切削理论,指导木制品生产,监控产品质量。     

Microscopic processes of shearing fracture of old wood, examined using the acoustic emission technique

We examined the process of microscopic fracturing peculiar to old wood, based on the generation characteristics of acoustic emission (AE) events and fracture surface analysis. The shearing tests of old wood obtained from construction-derived lumber and new wood within 3 years after lumbering were performed in accordance with the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS Z 2101-1994). The species of wood used in this study was Japanese red pine. The old wood had been used as a beam in a building for 270 years. The number of the occurrences of AEs at low load levels was larger in the old wood than in the new wood. As a result of analyzing the AE amplitude distributions, we found that the period in which AEs with small amplitudes were frequently generated was longer in the old wood than in the new wood. Also, the fracture surfaces after the final rupture under scanning electron microscope showed more uneven and complicated surfaces in the old wood. Based on the above findings, we presume that during the shearing test the old wood underwent a relatively long and stable progress of microcracking before the final fracture.     

Acoustic emission signal source localization on plywood surface with cross-correlation method

The high-speed data acquisition equipment which is based on NI and LabVIEW software was used to establish the acoustic emission (AE) signal collection platform, and adopted wavelet analysis method to extract the weak of AE signal waveform from noise, aiming at the localization of AE source on plywood surface. The signal cross-correlation analysis method is used to determine the time difference between the AE signals and the different sensors,so that further calculates the average propagation speed of AE signal on the plywood surface. A kind of AE signal source localization method which is based on the cross-correlation method was proposed according to the principle of geometric positioning, and verified by means of the testing experiment which selected the lead break to simulate AE source. This paper has shown that wavelet analysis can effectively extract AE signal waveform, and the localization method based on cross-correlation principle can precisely calibrate the position of AE signal source.     

The effects of wood-fiber directions on acoustic emission in routing

The purpose of this study was to investigate the causes of changes in acoustic emission (AE) signals corresponding to changes in grain orientation in routing. Both the AE signals and the state of cutting process were recorded on high-speed video cameras in an attempt to clarify the relationships between them. Based on the results, it appeared that generated AE was closely related to the state of cutting, as well as the surface finish. The greater the AE, the more severe the cutting performance for inclination angles. The greatest AE was generated when machining failures – fuzzy grains – were produced. Concerning the annual ring angle, the AE count rate, lowest at 0 degrees, slightly increased until 75 degrees, and then rapidly reached its maximum at 90 degrees. Changes in the slope angle had also an effect on the AE signal. The AE count rate, highest at the 0 degrees, gradually decreased until 75–105 degrees, and then increased to reach its maximum at 180 degrees. Moreover, there were correlations between the AE count rate and surface roughness. Therefore, acoustic emission has shown promise for the monitoring of the surface roughness including various cutting conditions. Received 23 September 1998     

Comparison of the effect of chemical and mechanical treatment of end-grain surfaces on adhesive bond strength

Abstract

End-grain surfaces of spruce wood specimens that were planed with a microtome knife were chemically modified by treatment with bleaching reagents, namely sodium hypochlorite and peracetic acid, and the effect of the surface modification on bond strength of end-grain joints was studied. The chemically treated samples were compared with sawn surfaces, microtome-planed specimens that were additionally irradiated by light, and surfaces that were solely planed with a microtome knife. Significantly higher bond strength compared with the microtome-planed specimens was observed for the sawn specimens and for hypochlorite-modified samples. These findings were ascribed on the one hand to an increased surface roughness resulting from the mechanical process of sawing leading to an enlargement of the bonding area. On the other hand, during the etching process with sodium hypochlorite a pulp of cell walls and cell wall fragments was formed, leading to a partially closed surface which prevented overpenetration of adhesive into the opened cells.     

Potential for increasing volume yield by reducing planing allowance

About half the volume of sawlogs ends up as sawn and planed timber. The rest is lost due to drying shrinkage or is turned into by products. As the raw material is a major expense for a sawmill, it is important to reduce waste. To investigate how much the volume yield in the production of sawn and planed timber could be increased by reducing the target dimensions in the sawing stage in a sawmill, two groups of sawn timber were planed under similar conditions. One group consisted of sawn Scots pine timber with a large variation in twist. The other group consisted of sawn Norway spruce timber planed under different pressure settings. Using X-ray images, the minimum dimension for avoiding planer misses was calculated for each board, to find the smallest green target dimension. This was compared to actual measured dimensions. It was found that most sawn timber had unnecessarily large dimensions, and it was also found that a reduction in the target dimensions could increase the volume yield for sawn and planed timber by more than 3 percentage points. Boards with large twist would however need a higher planing allowance. The effect of the planer pressure setting was negligible.     

Three-dimensional imaging of a sawn surface: a comparison of confocal microscopy,scanning electron microscopy,and light microscopy combined with serial sectioning

The three-dimensional structure of a transverse sawn wood surface was investigated using several methods, to compare techniques, and to study the types of deformation in tracheids at the saw cut. A sample of spruce sapwood was cut with a fret saw across the grain. The transverse sawn surface was imaged by confocal microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and by light microscopy combined with serial sectioning and three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction. Both confocal microscopy and FESEM were restricted to visualising the cut surface of the wood. However, serial sectioning was able to reveal the internal structure below the cut surface providing more information on the types of cell deformation present. The wood structure was deformed to depths of more than 600 μm below the surface with twisting, crushing and tearing deformations. Near the outer surface, gaps were formed between groups of tracheids where the cell walls had been torn away to form saw dust. The deformation tended to form groups of tracheids that were twisted relative to each other. Latewood was less distorted, forming a dense solid surface compared to the highly fibrous earlywood.     

Structural development of Pinus sylvestrís stands with varying initial density: A preliminary model for quality of sawn timber as affected by silvicultural measures

The effects of stand density, thinning and pruning on the quality of sawn timber of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were studied based on a computer model. Procedures for the tree growth and crown structure produce a tree, whose properties in terms of location, dimensions and quality (living, dead) of branches are known for any moment of the selected rotation. Consequently, the size, quality (living, dead) and location of knots in sawn timber are recognizable allowing the grading of sawn pieces. The model computations showed that the natural dynamics of the crown system in narrowly‐spaced stands could yield sawn timber nearly of the same quality as resulted from pruning in widely‐spaced stands. Thinning increased the branch growth and the branchiness of the wood yielding lower grade for sawn pieces, respectively.     

Outdoor exposure of untreated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] wood samples

Abstract

Untreated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) samples were exposed above ground in a durability test for 6 years. The samples consisted of three pieces of wood, 22×95×500 mm, screwed together; two pieces lengthwise with a third piece overlapping. Weight was measured, to calculate moisture content (MC), and samples checked regularly for cracks and fungal growth. Parameters investigated were heartwood/sapwood (pine), annual ring orientation (spruce), stand site, annual ring width and density. Stand site, annual ring width and density had no influence on MC or fungal growth for either pine or spruce. Spruce samples with vertical annual rings had fewer cracks than samples with horizontal annual rings. Pine sapwood samples had a high MC and a large amount of rot fungi, while heartwood had a lower MC and no rot. Most spruce samples were similar to pine heartwood, except from a few samples that had high MC and fungal growth. Those were all sawn from the outer part of the log. Therefore, it can be stated that spruce sawn from the inner part has almost the same properties as pine heartwood, while spruce from the outer part of the log has similar properties to pine sapwood.     

Acoustic emission analysis of industrial plywood materials exposed to destructive tensile load

Several plywood materials made from spruce wood and, for comparison, solid spruce wood were investigated focusing on the sub-macroscopic damage evolution during tensile loading of the specimens. The destructive tests were simultaneously monitored by the acoustic emission (AE) method and strain field deformation measurement using digital image correlation (DIC). The bilinear interpretation of exponential defect growth identified the start of significant nonlinear behavior at 70 % of ultimate strength for all plywood materials. However, already the preceding and more stable damage evolution at lower stress levels has indicated a variation in intensity of the source mechanisms evaluated by AE energy of the detected events. Additional information on the formation of strain field concentration, which correlates with discrete accumulation in AE events and increased spreading in the distribution of AE energy, reveals the complexity of pre-damage due to the variation in cracks’ magnitude and timescales involved. The correlation between ultimate tensile strength and damage accumulation below 70 % of ultimate strength is determined, as well as the influence of layered structures on damage size shown by the percentage distribution of AE energy.     

基于表面主要缺陷的锯材外观质量量化评价方法

【目的】提出一种锯材外观质量量化评价方法,探索锯材外观质量数字化检测与评价分级的可行性,为实现锯材外观质量的实时在线检测提供基础理论和技术支撑。【方法】建立由密闭暗室、光源、工业相机等组成的锯材表面缺陷在线检测系统,在稳定光环境下采集样本锯材彩色图像。基于图像处理技术开发软件试验系统,实现对锯材缺陷的检测和识别。分别建立节疤、孔洞和裂缝缺陷外观质量评价模型,并据此提出外观质量综合量化评价方法;通过与国家标准对照,验证本研究提出方法的科学性和可行性。【结果】量化评价方法与锯材材质指标等级进行对照,二者线性相关系数为0.85;锯材材质指标等级除了2级和3级对应的综合量化评价值分布比较分散、等级之间数据有部分交叉外,其他等级之间对应的综合量化评价值分布几乎没有交叉。量化评价方法与集成材层板外观质量要求进行对照,二者线性相关系数为0.88;锯材材质指标等级4级对应的综合量化评价值分布比较集中,与其他等级之间没有数据交叉;锯材材质指标等级1级、2级和3级相邻等级对应的综合量化评价值分布比较分散,等级之间数据有部分交叉,不相邻等级间数据分布没有交叉。【结论】综合量化评价值与依据有关国家标准确定的锯材材质指标等级、集成材层板外观质量要求的线性相关性相对较好,可为实现锯材外观质量数字化检测与评价奠定基础;通过调整模型有关影响系数,可满足不同树种和不同应用需求,以达到较好评价效果。     

Effect of thermal high-frequency surface hardening on the hardness and microstructure of bandsaw teeth

Summary Examination of the bandsaw teeth (1) untreated, (2) swaged and (3) treated by thermal high-frequency surface hardening method has shown that their average microhardness is 473 DPN (<46 R_c), 502 DPN (<49 R_c) and 836 DPN (>62 R_c) respectively.Scanning electron microscopy revealed that no significant change occurred within the crystalline microstructure of untreated and swaged specimens. The high-frequency treated specimen, however, has shown a definite structural modification of a very finely grained martensitic type, extending from the apex for a distance of 0.24 mm.The relationship between DPN microhardness distribution throughout the bandsaw steel and the range of H.F. impulse times from 24/50 to 36/50 of a second was also investigated, and depth of the hardened zone determined.The optimal H.F. impulse time length corresponding to the optimal tooth hardness appears to lie between 32 and 33/50 of a second. Operating with 32/50 impulse time on a conventional 2.41 mm thick SANDVIK bandsaw with 0.73 mm side swage, it was found that the average hardness of a H.F. treated tooth apex is about 905 DPN (>64 R_c) to a depth of 415 m and in practical terms approaches the estimated optimum for high-speed cutting.