Creative tensions in the research and development climate. Technical achievement of scientists and engineers was high under conditions that seemed antithetical

As Andrews and I examined the conditions under which scientists and engineers did effective work, we observed a number of apparent paradoxes. Achievement was high under conditions that seemed inconsistent, including on the one hand sources of stability or confidence (what I have called "security") and on the other hand sources of disruption or intellectual conflict (that is, "challenge"). It appears that, if both are present, the creative tension between them can promote technical achievement.     

实施精准扶贫需要精准抓好的关键主体——基于习近平总书记扶贫工作重要论述

习近平总书记在扶贫工作中强调指出，精准扶贫要抓好基层干部、科技扶贫人员、真贫户、乡村本土人才四个"关键主体"：依托基层干部解读、落实好国家扶贫政策，精准使用扶贫资金，坚定老百姓脱贫决心；依托科技扶贫人员做好精准施策，把好精准扶贫方向，坚定老百姓脱贫信心；探底真贫户致贫原因，彻底解放其思想，激发其致富内生动力；培育好乡村本土人才，致力脱贫后致富可持续性建设，组建"原生态"致富生力军。     

The spread of Western science. A three-stage model describes the introduction of modern science into any non-European nation

There is no need to summarize the features of this simplified model, which describes the manner in which modern science was transmitted to the lands beyond Western Europe. The graph of Fig. 1 and the examples drawn from science in various lands should have made them clear. It may be in order, however, to reiterate that there is nothing about the phases of my model that is cosmically or metaphysically necessary. I am satisfied if my attempt will interest others to go beyond my crude analysis and make a systematic investigation of the diffusion of Western science throughout the world. Such an investigation would include a comparative appraisal of the development of science in different national, cultural, and social settings and would mark the beginnings of truly comparative studies in the history and sociology of science. The present lack of comparative studies in these disciplines can be attributed to the widespread belief that science is strictly an international endeavor. In one sense this is true.As Sir Isaac Newton remarked in his Principia (49), "the descent of stones in Europe and in America" must both be explained by one set of physical laws. Yet, we cannot ignore the peculiar environment in which members of a national group of scientists are trained and carry on their research. While I do not hold with the Nazi theorists that science is a direct reflection of the racial or national spirit (50), neither do I accept Chekhov's dictum (51) that "there is no national science just as there is no national multiplication table. . . ." In emphasizing the international nature of scientific inquiry we have forgotten that science exists in a local social setting. If that setting does not decisively mold the conceptual growth of science, it can at least affect the number and types of individuals who are free to participate in the internal development of science. Perhaps the effect is more profound; only future scholarship can determine the depth of its influence.     

两用绘图机的研制

目前我国还没有既可绘制平行投影图又可绘制中心投影图的工具,致使广大技术人员未能摆脱繁重的绘图劳动。新研制的两用绘图机,结构简单、操作方便、作图迅速准确,具有能同时绘制平行投影图和中心投影图两种功能。本文重点叙述了两用绘图机的工作原理、结构特点及参数选择,并对各有关设计进行了计算,从而得出该绘图机是一种工作可靠、适于应用推广的比较理想的绘图工具。     

Erratum

In the article "Women scientists and engineers: Trends in participation," by, Betty M. Vetter (18 Dec., p. 1313), a study by C. Rose was incorrectly cited in reference 12. The correct citation is C. Rose, Academic Employment and Graduate Enrollment Pattern and Trends of Women in Science and Engineering (Final Technical Report to the National Science Foundation, Evaluation and Training Institute, Los Angeles, Calif., 1978).     

Bioethics. Financial conflicts get more scrutiny in clinical trials

At a national conference on clinical research last week, the incoming head of the federal government's new Office for Human Research Protections, Greg Koski, surprised his audience by suggesting that some conflicts should be avoided. His support for the idea that scientists should have no financial ties to companies whose products they are testing hints at an upcoming shift in government rules that govern the relationship between scientists and the pharmaceutical industry. But most of the discussion at the conference revolved around questions of how to "manage" conflicts rather than do away with them.     

New Instruments Shed Light On Astronomy's Future

KONA, HAWAII-The snowy 14,000-foot summit of Mauna Kea, with its bevy of powerful telescopes including the just-completed Keck, provided an appropriate backdrop for a recent ocean-side gathering of astronomers and engineers to discuss "Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation for the 21st Century." Last month's meeting was organized by the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, and included a status report on liquid mirror telescopes, discussion of a space observatory that may make optical and x-ray astronomers best friends, and a modest proposal to cover the globe with a network of small, automated telescopes.     

Science education in the United States: what the scientific community can do

It is argued that the need to improve science education should be a national priority. Ways are suggested by which the federal government and the scientific community, working together, can address this issue. It is recommended that scientists, engineers, and educators make a significant personal and institutional commitment to participate in science education activities, and that the President of the United States provide the personal leadership to generate a national commitment to the improvement of education at all levels.     

The community effects of industrialized farming: Social science research and challenges to corporate farming laws

Social scientists have a long history of concern with the effects of industrialized farming on communities. Recently, the topic has taken on new importance as corporate farming laws in a number of states are challenged by agribusiness interests. Defense of these laws often requires evidence from social science research that industrialized farming poses risks to communities. A problem is that no recent journal articles or books systematically assess the extent to which research to date provides evidence of these risks. This article addresses the gap in the literature. We evaluate studies investigating the effects of industrialized farming on community well-being from the 1930s to the present. Using a pool of 51 studies, we document the research designs employed, evaluate results as to whether adverse consequences were found, and delineate the aspects of community life that may be affected by industrialized farming. Of these studies, 57% found largely detrimental impacts, 25% were mixed, finding some detrimental impacts, and 18% found no detrimental impacts. Adverse impacts were found across an array of indicators measuring socioeconomic conditions, community social fabric, and environmental conditions. Few positive effects of industrialized farming were found across studies. The results demonstrate that public concern about industrialized farms is warranted. Scholars often debate whether research should be oriented around disciplines’ accumulated body of knowledge or, conversely, provide critical knowledge in the public interest. Social scientists’ long-term engagement in building the body of research on industrialized farming allows for accomplishment of both objectives.

Corrections and clarifications

In the news briefing "The world's most prolific scientists" (17 Jan., p. 283), Arnold L. Rheingold, a crystallographer at the University of Delaware, was inadvertently left off the list of the top 20 most prolific scientists. The Institute for Scientific Information has corrected its list and states that Rheingold published 391 articles and other scientific communications between 1981 and the end of 1990. He should have ranked 13th on the list.     

Corrections and clarifications

In Joseph Palca's article "The case of the Florida dentist" (News & Comment, 24 Jan., p. 392), it should have been made clear that when Barbara Mishkin was indirectly quoted as saying that data gathered by government scientists is fair game for Freedom of Information Act requests, she was speaking of data generated by scientists in the National Institutes of Science intramural research program, unless those data fall within one of the statutory exemptions.     

Biology, politics, and the emerging science of human nature

In the past 50 years, biologists have learned a tremendous amount about human brain function and its genetic basis. At the same time, political scientists have been intensively studying the effect of the social and institutional environment on mass political attitudes and behaviors. However, these separate fields of inquiry are subject to inherent limitations that may only be resolved through collaboration across disciplines. We describe recent advances and argue that biologists and political scientists must work together to advance a new science of human nature.     

Common elements and interconnections

The major concepts addressed in this article are the synergistic nature of science, engineering, and technology; the benefits and burdens of technology; the resolution of societal issues; and the roles of scientists and engineers in the resolution of societal issues.     

棉花杂种优势利用现状及发展思路

棉花杂种优势及其利用一直受到国内外科学家的关注。就当前我国棉花杂种优势利用的途径、技术进行了述评,并且对我国今后棉花杂种优势利用的发展思路进行了探讨。     

Corrections and clarifications

Explanatory material was omitted from the bar graph accompanying the article "World Bank report calls for network to bolster research" by Peter Aldhous (News & Comment, 9 July, p. 155). The y axis should have been labeled "Disability-adjusted life years per 1000 population."     

Supply and demand for scientists and engineers: a national crisis in the making

Projections are analyzed for the future supply and demand of scientists and engineers. The demographics of the college-age population combined with estimates of the percentage of students who will pursue careers in science and engineering indicate significant shortfalls between supply and demand for the next several decades at both the baccalaureate and Ph.D. levels. If these projections are realized, the shortage of technical personnel will have a major impact on economic growth, international competitiveness, and national security. Various strategies for recruiting and retaining students in science and engineering are considered.     

Rethinking agricultural research roles

An examination of the role ofUniversity weed scientists in herbicide efficacyresearch and long-term weed management studies raisesseveral important questions: who should do what kindof research and what kind of research should be done,and, because the university is a research institutionfunded by the public, there is also the importantquestion of who should pay for the research. Indeveloping a response to these questions, severaldimensions of the relationships within which weedscience works must be considered. The authorsexperience has demonstrated that production, thedominant value in agriculture, provides a sufficientanswer to the questions for many in weed science.However, when weed scientists claim credit forexcellence in production they must also acceptsocietys right to hold them responsible for problemsthey now treat as externalities.     

Science advice in the white house? Continuation of a debate

Thus, we are skeptical of the commonly stated arguments for re-creation of a science office at the White House, but are ultimately convinced that such an office is justified. A three-man CST is a reasonable proposal, although the detailed structure is less critical than the mandate given to the office, and the general understanding within government of its functions and limitations and of its relationship to the President. To give it permanence, the office should be grounded in a science policy management and oversight function that is critically needed today. That kind of strong office could lead a president to use it as his personal science advisory staff, but the decision must be made anew by each president. The President does have other ways of obtaining scientific advice, although the right kind of science office would be a preferable route in our view. The importance of such an office being able to present its analyses and recommendations in policy terms useful to other policy-makers cannot be overestimated. This has important implications for the kind of competence required to staff and work with such a council; it also requires recognition of the fact that policy-relevant studies and advice can never be value-free, even when carried out by scientists and engineers. And finally, such a council could bring intensive and continuous attention to the international dimension of U.S. science policy, which seems to us to be particularly neglected. It is not yet clear whether there will be any structural changes in the new Administration. But it is not too soon to be clearer about the essential factors that should underlie a sensible proposal for this or the next Administration.     

橡胶树死皮病研究进展

橡胶树“死皮病”给橡胶种植业带来严重的危害,目前该病已成为世界橡胶研究的热点之一。本文综述了多年来研究者们从不同学科不同角度对TPD现象的研究及多种关于TPD发生原因的假说,认为最近提出的“橡胶树死皮是由强割和强乙烯刺激引起的程序性细胞死亡现象”的观点是对前人研究成果和观点的综合和深化,并且结合自身的研究指出了目前死皮研究中存在的问题及研究方向。     

Study on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Gadus morrhua Skin Collagen and Molecular Weight Distribution of Hydrolysates

Process parameters on enzymatic hydrolysis and molecular weight （MW） distribution of collagen hydrolysates from Gadus morrhua skin were investigated. The optimal process parameters were obtained by the single-factor and orthogonal experiments. The molecular weight distribution of hydrolysates was determined using both Sephadex G25 partition and high speed liquid chromatography electricity spray mass spectrum （HPLC-ESI-MS）. Collagen hydrolysates were first gained by an alkaline protease ＂alcalase＂ for 3 h at temperature （50~C）, pH （10.0）, substrate concentration （75 g L-~）, and E/S （3%）. The molecular weight distribution of collagen hydrolysates ranged from 300 to 1 500 Da, and most of peptides were under 1 200 Da. Sephadex G25 partition and HPLC-ESI-MS should be successfully employed to determine the molecular weight distribution of collagen hydrolysates.