Arterial Catheterization,Interpretation, and Treatment of Arterial Blood Pressures and Blood Gases in Birds

Blood pressure monitoring of patients has become increasingly common in companion animal veterinary hospitals, especially during anesthesia, surgical procedures, critical care, and general health assessments. Determining an animal’s blood pressure has become a standard part of the routine diagnostic evaluation for monitoring hypertension in geriatric patients or patients affected with renal insufficiency, cardiac disease, vision loss, or endocrine disorders. To increase the standard of care in exotic and zoological medicine, new diagnostic techniques must be identified and implemented. Blood pressure measurements in avian species are more challenging because only direct blood pressure techniques have been reported to be accurate. Arterial catheterization and interpretation can be daunting without the knowledge of avian physiology and anatomy; however, techniques for placing arterial catheters are not difficult once clinicians have gained sufficient experience. This article describes the techniques, anatomy, and appropriate interpretation of blood pressure results obtained through arterial catheterization in birds.     

Transfusion medicine in veterinary emergency and critical care medicine

Transfusion medicine is a vital part of veterinary emergency and critical care medicine. The goals of this article are to review blood banking and the transfusion principles surrounding care of the critically ill or injured small animal, to highlight the differences in emergency/critical care transfusions compared with standard transfusion medicine, and to discuss traumatic blood loss and sepsis as unique entities in emergency and critical medicine.     

Detection of bacterial contamination and DNA quantification in stored blood units in 2 veterinary hospital blood banks

Blood transfusions in veterinary medicine have become increasingly more common and are now an integral part of lifesaving and advanced treatment in small and large animals. Important risks associated with transfusion of blood products include the transmission of various infectious diseases. Several guidelines suggest what infectious agents to screen for in canine and feline transfusion medicine. However, while the risk of bacterial contamination of blood products during storage and administration has not been documented in veterinary medicine, it has emerged as a cause of morbidity and mortality in human transfusion medicine. Clinical experience shows that the majority of blood component bacterial contaminations are caused by only a few species. Unlike other types of bacteria, psychrotolerant species like Pseudomonas spp. and Serratia spp. can proliferate during the storage of blood units at 4°C from a very low titer at the time of blood collection to a clinically significant level (> 10⁵ CFU/mL) causing clinical sepsis resulting from red blood cell concentrate transfusions in human medicine. The purpose of this report was to describe the detection and quantification procedures applied in 4 cases of bacterial contamination of canine and feline blood units, which suggest the need for further investigations to optimize patients’ safety in veterinary transfusion medicine.     

The use of surgical lasers in exotic and avian practice.

Use of diode laser energy with fiberoptic endoscopic delivery in exotic animal and avian practice offers a minimally invasive method for performing specific surgical procedures. Trauma and blood loss are minimized, but the absorption characteristics of the diode laser wavelengths (805/980 nm) must be considered to avoid potential postoperative complications due to collateral photothermal coagulative necrosis.     

Emergency avian surgery.

Avian surgery is an exercise of preparedness; this statement is never so true as in emergency and critical care situations. The techniques used in avian surgery are significantly different from those used in larger species and require microsurgical techniques. Before initiating a surgical procedure, the patient must be evaluated and, in many cases, prepared or preconditioned. Rarely is surgery such an emergency that the prognosis would not be improved by readying the patient. Techniques of tissue handling, approaches to the coelomic cavities and a select number of surgical procedures are described.     

A rapid high-precision flow cytometry based technique for total white blood cell counting in chickens

The automated analysis of total white blood cell count and white blood cell differentials is routine in research and clinical diagnosis in mammalian species. In contrast, in avian haematology these parameters are still estimated by conventional microscopic procedures due to technical difficulties associated with the morphological peculiarities of avian erythrocytes and thrombocytes. Both cell types are nucleated and fairly resistant to cell lysis, a prerequisite for automated leukocyte quantification and differentiation by commercial instruments. By using an anti-CD45 monoclonal antibody in combination with selected subset specific markers we have established a simple (no-lyse no-wash single-step one-tube) flow cytometry based technique for high precision chicken blood cell quantification. EDTA-blood samples are diluted, spiked with fluorescence beads and incubated with a mixture of fluorochrome conjugated chicken leukocyte specific antibodies. We demonstrate that total leukocyte numbers as well as thrombocyte, monocyte, T-cell, B-cell and heterophilic granulocyte numbers can be determined by flow cytometry in a single step without prior cell lysis, cell separation or cell washing steps. Importantly, we also show that blood samples can be fixed prior to cell staining which enables shipping of samples making the technology widely available. Comparison of this technique with conventional microscopy revealed superior precision. By comparing leukocyte differentials of two chicken populations and during immune system development after hatch we demonstrate that large sample numbers can be analysed within hours. This technique will help to overcome previous restrictions in immune status analysis in chickens in experimental systems, during vaccine testing and health status monitoring in chicken flocks. Advances in avian genomics should facilitate the development of appropriate tools for other avian species in the future which will make this technique broadly applicable.     

An Introduction to Positive Reinforcement Training and Its Benefits

Training birds with positive reinforcement involves focusing on kind and gentle methods to create behavior. This article explores some of the basic strategies and principles used to train birds with positive reinforcement based on the science of applied behavior analysis. These methods can be used to train reliable, repeatable, consistent voluntary presentation of behaviors that facilitate optimum avian care without the use of aversive strategies that promote domination and control. More importantly, these principles can be used to solve behavior problems and also train medically important behaviors, including voluntary nail trims, vaccinations, and blood sampling, as evidenced by successful training completed in several zoos in the United States. By learning the application of positive reinforcement training strategies, avian enthusiasts can revolutionize care and management practices for companion parrots.     

Health evaluation of free-ranging rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocomes) in Argentina.

As part of annual colony counts in Santa Cruz Province, Argentina, a health survey of rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocomes) was conducted in 1994. Forty-five birds were examined during handling procedures, and blood and fecal samples were collected for laboratory analysis. All birds appeared to be in good condition. No ecto- or endoparasites were found. Hematology, plasma chemistry, and plasma mineral levels were measured and correlated with the results of bacterial and viral serology. Antibodies against Chlamydia sp., avian adenovirus, avian encephalomyelitis virus, infectious bronchitis virus, avian reovirus, and paramyxovirus-1, -2, and -3 were found. Mean plasma chemistry and mineral values differed between individuals testing positive and negative on serologic tests. There was no serologic evidence of exposure to avian influenza virus, duck viral enteritis, infectious bursal disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, Aspergillus sp., or Salmonella pullorum. Trace amounts of endrin were found in the plasma of one bird, but all other chlorinated pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl levels were below detectable limits.     

Tumors of pet birds.

Neoplastic diseases are becoming more than a postmortem diagnosis due to the increasing knowledge base and improving quality of avian medicine. The expectation for better health care demands a diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy options. However, the published information regarding prognosis and therapy of specific neoplasms remains limited in avian medicine. With each case report or study that provides this information, there is an improvement in the level of care we can offer our companion avian species. This review will cover some basic information about specific tumor types and will reference the more recent reports in the avian literature. It is not intended to be all encompassing.     

Canine and feline blood donor screening for infectious disease

Thousands of blood transfusions are performed each year on dogs and cats, and the demand for blood products continues to grow. Risks associated with transfusions include the risk of disease transmission. Appropriate screening of blood donors for bloodborne infectious disease agents should be performed to lessen this risk. Geographic restrictions of disease, breed predilection, and documentation of actual disease transmission by transfusion all are factors that might need to be considered when making a decision on what screening program to use. In addition, factors involving general health care and management of blood donors should be employed to further ensure blood safety.     

Diagnostic cytology in avian medicine

Diagnostic cytology in avian medicine provides a means for better disease definition in the avian patient, which allows for a more specific therapeutic regimen. It is important that cytologic specimens are from fresh sources, since cells degenerate rapidly following the death of the bird or the tissue. Cytologic evaluation is an adjunct to other diagnostic procedures. A definitive diagnosis often requires information from the clinical history, physical examination, evaluation of samples obtained from the bird, radiographs, surgical procedures, necropsy, and histopathology.     

Bandaging, endoscopy, and surgery in the emergency avian patient.

This article is divided into three parts and describes procedures used in avian medicine after initial stabilization. The first part includes the application of bandages and splints for fractures. The second part describes the use of endoscopy to examine the choana, oral cavity, trachea, and, to a lesser extent, internal organs. The last part discusses equipment required and techniques used for esophagostomy tube placement, air sac cannulation, and surgery, with approaches to the coelomic cavity and a select number of surgical procedures. This article is intended to provide the emergency animal clinician with knowledge necessary to provide basic stabilization for avian patients and knowledge of procedures that can be performed by the experienced clinician.     

输血疗法在奶牛和犬疾病中的临床应用

输血疗法是救治动物的一种有效措施.论文介绍了输血的适应症与禁忌症,奶牛和犬的血型,供血奶牛和犬的选择,血液的采集及输血方法,并结合临床病例就输血中的注意事项和体会进行了总结.     

Clinical considerations of the thoracic limb.

The avian skeleton is significantly different from the mammalian skeleton, and these differences are important when providing fracture repair and postoperative care for the avian patient. Successful repair depends on an understanding of fracture management and healing and of the anatomical, physiologic, and behavioral concerns of avian patients. Having knowledge of fracture repair without an understanding of the unique needs of avian patients' results in a disappointing treatment response.     

仙游县高致病性禽流感免疫抗体监测与分析

通过对禽流感免疫抗体进行监测与分析,全面掌握禽流感的免疫效果,提高预警能力,指导养殖场(户)制定合理的免疫程序。     

Avian hematology and related disorders

Hematology is an essential component of veterinary practice. The interpretation of avian blood cells provides many challenges. Practitioners must be able to recognize normal morphology and function of cells to interpret changes in those cells. This article describes the normal morphology of avian erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. Changes observed in erythrocytes and leukocytes during disease and major differential diagnoses are discussed. A brief overview of avian blood parasites is also presented.     

Massive transfusion in dogs: 15 cases (1997-2001)

OBJECTIVE: To determine clinical characteristics of dogs that received massive transfusion and identify the underlying diseases, complications, and outcomes. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 15 dogs. PROCEDURE: Medical records of dogs receiving a massive blood transfusion were evaluated for transfusion volume, underlying disease process or injury, benefits and complications of transfusion, and outcome. A massive transfusion was defined as transfusion of a volume of blood products in excess of the patient's estimated blood volume (90 ml/kg [40 ml/lb]) in a 24-hour period or transfusion of a volume of blood products in excess of half the patient's estimated blood volume in a 3-hour period. RESULTS: Six dogs had intra-abdominal neoplasia resulting in hemoabdomen, 3 had suffered a traumatic incident resulting in hemoabdomen, and 6 had non-traumatic, non-neoplastic blood loss. Mean volumes of packed RBC and fresh-frozen plasma administered were 66.5 ml/kg (30 ml/lb) and 22.2 ml/kg (10 ml/lb), respectively. All dogs evaluated developed low ionized calcium concentrations and thrombocytopenia. Transfusion reactions were recognized in 6 dogs. Four dogs survived to hospital discharge. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that massive transfusion is possible and potentially successful in dogs. Predictable changes in electrolyte concentrations and platelet count develop.     

Avian endoscopy

Endoscopic techniques in birds provide invaluable information on the medical care and husbandry of avian species. The instruments required to perform these examinations have been adapted from human arthroscopic instruments. With the advances in avian anesthetic techniques, endoscopic techniques can be readily and successfully applied to the avian patient in a general practice setting.     

Avian care and husbandry.

Birds are becoming more popular as pets, and the need for veterinary professionals to learn more about these pets is crucial. This article introduces the veterinary staff to basic information required to provide high-quality care to avian patients. High-quality nutrition for a variety of species and ages is included in this article. The importance of proper husbandry and intellectual stimulation with toys is also discussed. Special emphasis is placed on instructions for clients when making appointments, as well as recognizing signs of illness for both clients and veterinary staff. Capture, restraint, and sample collection are an important part of this article, as well as medication administration, anesthesia, supportive care, preventive care and grooming. A variety of aspects concerning the care of the avian patient are covered for the benefit of the client and veterinary technician.