Coal and the Present Energy Situation: Abundant coal reserves can be used to alleviate the oil and gas shortage

To summarize, we must make greater use of coal, an energy resource that the nation has in great abundance, if we are to approach our former position of self-sufficiency in energy production. The first step is to move immediately to replace the oil and gas used in electric generating plants with coal and to require that coal be used in fossil fuel electric plants planned or under construction in the next few years. The technology to remove sulfur and particulates from the stack gases is at hand, and therefore environmental regulations can be met. Producing and transporting the required increased tonnages of coal are problems that can be met with appropriate incentives to the coal and transportation industries. Improved mining technology would be helpful but is not a requiremlent. Oil and gas from coal should be in significant commercial production in about a decade. Underground, or in situ, gasification of coal, now in field tests, looks promising as a practical process for recovering the energy from coal, especially in deep or thick beds that cannot be mined efficiently. Recoverable methane occurs in coal beds in the United States in an amount approximately equal to the total reserves of natural gas-about 260 trillion cubic feet. This large reserve of natural gas should be exploited as quickly as possible. Only minor investments in exploration and modest advances in technology are required. Finally, as coal production is expanded. adequate planning and the most modern technology should be used to ensure that coal is extracted with maximum recovery and with minimum damage to the environment.     

Coal in the United States: a status report

Historical trends in U.S. coal production, transportation and utilization and their causes are analyzed. The changing structure of the coal industry and its possible future direction, as it is driven by the effects of the oil embargo and world oil prices, are examined. National policies in the United States to increase coal use from indigenous sources in order to diversify and increase reliability of supply raise questions as to availability of coal supply and potential markets. Possible constraints on U.S. coal production, transportation, and utilization are appraised and it is concluded that increased coal consumption is "demand constrained." The causes and potential means of removal of these limitations are examined.     

Recent progress in the direct liquefaction of coal

Interest in direct coal liquefaction steadily decreased during the 1980s as the price of crude oil dropped; there is now only one integrated coal liquefaction pilot plant active full time in the United States. The economics derived early in the decade established the price of transportation fuels from coal at $80 per barrel or higher. However, there have been dramatic improvements in the technology since 1983 that have not been widely appreciated. Recent designs and cost estimates show that a 60 percent decrease in the cost of liquid fuels from coal to an equivalent of $35 per barrel for crude oil. Although this cost is not low enough to justify immediate commercialization, additional improvements have been identified that could make direct liquefaction an attractive way to produce gasoline and other conventional fuels.     

Clean fuels from coal gasification

The quickest way to establish a visible new margin against energy demand is the historic producer serving small industry and gasifying Pennsylvania anthracite. In 2 years many producers could be in operation. The quickest way to obtain significant supplies of "new" gas or oil is to retrofit existing electricity and industrial boilers for power or industrial gas. Important results could be achieved in 6 years. Table 3 identifies development activities deserving high priority to speed the capture of gas and oil now burned in boilers, and to speed realization the advantages of combined-cycle equipment running on coal (8). Obviously, these activities are not enough. Many exciting and worthwhile concepts at various stages of development can furnish improved techniques for converting coal to pipeline gas and liquid fuels for the long run. Reviews of these concepts are available (6, 32, 35). I have neglected them in this article not to deny their importance but to stress the earlier opportunities from technology that is ready now, or nearly ready. The oil and gas industries might well consider the historical progression from Wells Fargo to Western Union to American Telephone and Telegraph to Radio Corporation of America. These industries will miss the boat if they regard themselves simply as purveyors of their historical fuels and not as purveyors of clean energy. The gas industry especially will be in trouble if it lets its major industrial customers, such as steel and electricity, provide their own supplies of power and industrial gas.     

New production techniques for alberta oil sands

Low world oil prices represent a serious threat to expanded commercial development of the Canadian oil sands in the near term, as they do to all of the higher cost alternatives to crude oil such as oil shales and coal liquefaction. Nonetheless, research and field testing of new technology for production of oil from oil sands are being pursued by industry and government in Alberta. New production technology is being developed in Canada to produce synthetic oil from the vast resources of bitumen trapped in the oil sands and bituminous carbonates of northern Alberta. This technology includes improved methods of mining, extraction, and upgrading of bitumen from near-surface deposits as well as new drilling and production techniques for thermal production of bitumen from the more deeply buried reservoirs. Of particular interest are the cluster drilling methods designed to reduce surface disturbance and the techniques for horizontal drilling of wells from underground tunnels to increase the contact of injection fluids with the reservoir.     

Impending United States energy crisis

The U.S. oil and gas industry has been dramatically weakened by the recent oil price collapse. Domestic drilling activity reached a new post-World War II low during the summer of 1986. Given a weak, unstable oil price outlook, U.S. capability will continue to deteriorate. In the last year U.S. imports of foreign oil have risen significantly, and if market forces alone dominate, U.S. dependence is expected to rise from 32% in 1983 to the 50 to 70% level in the not-too-distant future. The 1973 oil embargo and the subsequent attempts to improve U.S. energy security vividly demonstrated the huge costs and long periods of time required to change our energy system. These facts, coupled with the nation's generally short-term orientation, suggest a strong likelihood of a new U.S. energy crisis in the early to middle 1990s.     

Coal gasification for electric power generation

The electric utility industry is being severely affected by rapidly escalating gas and oil prices, restrictive environmental and licensing regulations, and an extremely tight money market. Integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants have the potential to be economically competitive with present commercial coal-fired power plants while satisfying stringent emission control requirements. The current status of gasification technology is discussed and the critical importance of the 100-megawatt Cool Water IGCC demonstration program is emphasized.     

Experience from Soybean Industry Development of Main Soybean Producing Countries

Soybean output and trade are mainly operated in America, Brazil, Argentina and China in recent years, especially in America. For China, the import output is number one, and the export output is the forth. For this reason, the soybean industry of China got a huge lash, and the soybean farmers got a large loss, it influenced the building of new countryside construction in China. Both U.S.A＇s soybean output and trade amour are the number one in the world, this achievement should be contributed to U.S.A＇s advanced production ability and its favorable subsidy policies. Contrary to U.S.A＇s large subsidy and cheap loan, Brazil and Argentina raise their soybean output and trade amount by high production technology and ＂untying＂ policies, such as abolishing some unreasonable rules and tax. So if we want to develop Chinese soybean industry and make sure our soybean industry＇s safety, it＇s necessary for us to experience soybean industry development of other countries＇ and improve ours     

贵州省木本油料产业现状及发展对策分析

木本油料是我国食用及工业用油的重要来源,作为可再生能源,木本油料的发展对我国正面临的粮油危机及扶贫攻坚战略具有重要的现实意义。本文阐述了贵州省油茶、核桃、油桐等木本油料的发展现状,针对当前存在的应对市场变化能力差、经营模式落后、政策扶持力度较弱、科技支撑不足、多头管理突出等问题进行分析,提出创新产业发展模式、培育龙头企业、推动林地建设、鼓励集约经营和强化科技支撑等适于贵州省发展的具体建议,以期助力推动全省木本油料产业的健康有序发展。     

全面发展我国的管道工业

我国管道工业的发展，有着美好的前景，也面临着严峻的挑战。东部油区进入低产阶段，为了“稳定东部”，对东部管道需要进一步改造，即加强管道内检测，维护或更换防腐层，进行管道优化运行的研究，灵活运用现有管网完成进口源油的输送。随着成品油需求的增长，发展成品油管道是最佳选择。建设成品管道的关键技术包括：减少混油段的长度；混油界面的检测；混油段的处理及快速切换装置内容。天然气的开发和城市煤气化的兴起，输气和这     

Prospects for district heating in the United States

Large-scale district heating, using waste heat rejected by electric power plants and other sources, is presented as a means of reducing significantly the amount of fossil fuel consumed for residential and commercial space and water heating in the United States. Analysis of the technical and economic aspects of model district heating systems for nine U.S. urban areas shows that district heat service to residential and commercial consumers would be economically attractive. Projections of national service levels show that up to half of the U.S. population could be served by district heating at costs that are competitive with the present costs of imported oil and also with projected costs of new energy forms. An advantage of district heat over the latter is that it is a proved, simple technology.     

Energy needs versus environmental pollution: a reconciliation?

In this article I have presented, for discussion, a proposed system for energy generation by which the principal sources of environmental pollution by power plants could be eliminated. For stationary power plants the concept appears feasible technically and, according to my " horseback estimates," perhaps economically as well, depending upon the economic value of the by-products of sulfur, CO(2), water, and possibly nitrogen, and upon the price we are willing to pay for a clean environment .Thus, a more thorough engineering and economic analysis to explore these and other factors in greater depth seems warranted. In the case of turbine-driven vehicles, the technical and economic feasibility of widespread distribution and handling of the fuel constitutes a serious question, but one which deserves equally serious consideration before the possibility is discounted. The reports of the cited study panels notwithstanding, the technology required for the proposed system exists today, with one exception. This exception (which is not essential for trial of the system but will be required for its complete fruition) is the development of a nuclear reactor for the prime purpose of delivering process heat for the steam reforming of natural gas and, ultimately, for gas production from coal in a continuous process, such as those discussed by Pieroni et al. (16). Today's intermittent processes of coking and gas production are both archaic and themselves large sources of atmospheric pollution, and a development program aimed at advancing the technology of the coal industry in this regard would seem long overdue. The report of the PSAC Environmental Pollution Panel recommended "demonstration of the feasibility and economy of new developments for abating or controlling pollution through their use at Federal installations" and suggested the coalburning TVA power plants as a likely place for such demonstration. This suggestion is doubly appropriate since the TVA is in a region of subnormal " atmospheric ventilation" (8). By design these plants are adjacent to the AEC's Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and such a location would seem ideal for an experiment on the wedding of nuclear and fossil sources of energy. In comments on a preliminary draft of this article, proponents of "conventional " nuclear power pointed out that such power is hard to beat on the basis of cost, and that dissipation of heat to the air by way of cooling towers can also be accomplished in conventional plants (17). These observations are individually correct but not compatible: the low power costs cited are for very large plants [of the order of 1000 mega-watts lectrical) and larger], and the costs of cooling towers and associated equipment needed to dissipate such large amounts of heat [of the order of 2000 megawatts (thermal)] to air from a closed cycle would offset the power cost advantage of the large plant. In regard to the proposed use of nuclear process heat, Weinberg (20) has expressed doubt that much advantage can be derived from this approach because the temperatures involved are too high for low-cost reactors, and heat transfer from surfaces could involve materials problems. In the case of gas production, this is indeed an anticipated problem-not a technologically insuperable one, but a problem of reducing the cost of the materials required (16). Indeed, Weinberg himself has mentioned this possible use of nuclear heat in a recent publication discussing the steam reforming of coal to liquid fuel(21). Also, an improved process for synthesizing methane from lignitec has recently been reported (22). Since the earlier studies date back a decade, a new look at the problems and costs involved relative to the benefits to be derived (not the least of which could be new vigor for the coal industry) would seem to be in order. In the case of steam reforming of natural gas, the temperature level (about 1500 degrees F) is such that the technology is available today, and a process-heat-reactor design study could be initiated without awaiting further developments.     

Food production and the energy crisis

The principal raw material of modern U.S. agriculture is fossil fuel, whereas the labor input is relatively small (about 9 hours per crop acre). As agriculture is dependent upon fossil energy, crop production costs will also soar when fuel costs increase two- to fivefold. A return of 2.8 kcal of corn per 1 kcal of fuel input may then be uneconomical. Green revolution agriculture also uses high energy crop production technology, especially with respect to fertilizers and pesticides. While one may not doubt the sincerity of the U.S. effort to share its agricultural technology so that the rest of the world can live and eat as it does, one must be realistic about the resources available to accomplish this mission. In the United States we are currently using an equivalent of 80 gallons of gasoline to produce an acre of corn. With fuel shortages and high prices to come, we wonder if many developing nations will be able to afford the technology of U.S. agriculture. Problems have already occurred with green revolution crops, particularly problems related to pests (57). More critical problems are expected when there is a world energy crisis. A careful assessment should be made of the benefits, costs, and risks of high energy-demand green revolution agriculture in order to be certain that this program will not aggravate the already serious world food situation (58). To reduce energy inputs, green revolution and U.S. agriculture might employ such alternatives as rotations and green manures to reduce the high energy demand of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. U.S. agriculture might also reduce energy expenditures by substituting some manpower currently displaced by mechanization. While no one knows for certain what changes will have to be made, we can be sure that when conventional energy resources become scarce and expensive, the impact on agriculture as an industry and a way of life will be significant. This analysis is but a preliminary investigation of a significant agricultural problem that deserves careful attention and greater study before the energy situation becomes more critical.     

An industry picture of u.s. Science policy

With regard to promoting the competitiveness of U.S. industry, federal science policy is performing unevenly. Federally supported basic research is not well aligned with industrial needs, although the National Science Foundation's Engineering Research Centers and similar programs are improving matters. Large-scale federal undertakings in science and technology, such as the Apollo program and now the Strategic Defense Initiative, actually tend to divert resources away from commercial research and development. Needed are federal and industrial leaders who will work together to serve the interests of both competitive industry and efficient government in the United States.     

German energy technology prospects

After more than 25 years of development of nuclear power and almost 10 years of research and development in numerous areas of nonnuclear energy, there is now a good basis for judging the future prospects of energy technologies in the Federal Republic of Germany. The development of nuclear power has provided an important and economically advantageous new source of energy. Further efforts are needed to establish the nuclear fuel cycle in all stages and to exploit the potential of advanced reactors. In all other areas of energy technology, including energy conservation, new energy sources, and coal, economics has turned out to be the key problem, even at today's energy prices. Opportunities to overcome these economic problems through additional R & D are limited. There is some potential for special applications, and there are many technologies that could contribute to the energy supply of developing countries. In general, however, progress in energy conservation and the use of renewable energy sources will depend on the degree to which energy policy measures can improve their economic basis. For some technologies, such as solar thermal power stations and coal liquefaction, large-scale economic deployment cannot be foreseen today. Instead of establishing costly demonstration projects, emphasis will be put on improving key components of these technologies with the aim of having the most advanced technology available when the economic parameters are more favorable.     

我国花生产业面临的机遇与科技发展战略

分析了我国花生产业发展面临的机遇与挑战,阐述了我国植物油脂安全对花生生产的推动作用和国内外花生科技发展的趋势和特点。结合现代花生产业科技发展方向,从花生产业创新技术体系建设、花生产业重点发展学科等方面分析了未来20年花生产业科技发展的趋势和着眼点,对于大幅度提升我国花生科技创新水平,实现花生生产的“高产、优质、高效、生态、安全”的目标具有重要的战略意义。     

21世纪前十年我国管道工业发展预测

根据对世界石油和天然气在能源结构中所占的比例，以及我国国民经济发展状况的分析，预计今后几十年我国管道工业将得到快速发展，其显标志是一系列油气输送管道的设计和建设，而油气输送管道的建设和发展也将拉动我国冶金业、制管业和机械加工制造业等相关工业的发展。同时，随着科技进步，油气管道诸多技术难题也将在本世纪前十年得到解决，我国将进入管道工业发达国家的行列。     

Status of the Development of EDS Coal Liquefaction

This article traces the evolution and development of a modern coal liquefaction technology, the EDS (Exxon Donor Solvent) process, over a period of 15 years. During this time the technology has been advanced from laboratory experiments to a pilot plant with a coal feed rate of 250 tons per day, and findings from several areas of science and technology have been important. The process is now in the final stage of development to generate the data needed to design a plant of commercial size.     

液化天然气的运输方式及其特点

从液化天然气产业供应链的角度讨论了液化天然气的管道输送、公路罐车运输和海上液化天然气船舶运输的技术特点,首次提出了液化天然气管道密相输送工艺技术及其经济可行性.分析了液化天然气公路运输链中液化、储存、运输、再气化等环节的关键技术,以及国内外海上液化天然气运输链各个环节的技术特点.针对中国液化天然气工业的发展现状,指出中国液化天然气工业发展的前提是建立完善的能源政策.随着广东、福建等东部沿海地区液化天然气项目的逐步发展,中国液化天然气工业发展前景广阔.     

发展我国光电子产业的思考

光电子产业作为新兴的高科技产业在21世纪必将有巨大的发展，对人类产生深远的影响。发展光电子产业不仅能促进我国的经济发展，而且能增强我国的核心竞争力，使我国在21世纪的知识经济时代实现腾飞。发展光电子产业，要根据光电子产业发展的特点，制定符合我国国情的战略、方针和政策，保证光电子产业在我国成功发展。