Participatory appraisal of foot and mouth disease in the Afar pastoral area, northeast Ethiopia: implications for understanding disease ecology and control strategy

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most economically important disease of livestock that still affects extensive areas of the world. This study described the use of participatory appraisal tools such as pair-wise ranking, matrix scoring and proportional piling to assess the perception of livestock keepers about the clinical signs and epidemiological features of cattle diseases with particular emphasis on FMD. Strong agreement among informant groups (W?=?0.710; P?=?0.000) in pair wise ranking indicated that the diseases were common problem to all the selected districts. Matrix scoring of disease indicators/signs also showed strong agreement (W?=?0.504 to 0.955; P?=?0.000) that implied significant current veterinary knowledge by Afar pastoralists. Age specific means of annual incidence rates estimated by proportional piling were significantly (P?<?0.05) different but negatively correlated for FMD, CBPP and pasteurellosis. However, correlation was not significant for anthrax, blackleg and other important diseases. Age specific means of annual mortality was significantly (P?<?0.05) but negatively correlated for FMD, CBPP, pasteurellosis and other important cattle diseases with correlation coefficients of ?0.72, ?0.81, ?0.8 and ?0.55, respectively. However, correlation (r?=?0.12) was not significant for anthrax and not correlated at all for blackleg. This study indicated that pastoralists have detailed knowledge about their livestock health problems, and hence the combined use of participatory appraisal and conventional methods is essential for an ultimate disease control strategy.     

Participatory analysis of seasonal incidences of diseases of cattle, disease vectors and rainfall in southern Sudan

During an investigation into a chronic wasting disease in southern Sudanese cattle, a participatory appraisal method called a ‘seasonal calendar’ was used to understand local perceptions of seasonal variations in cattle diseases, disease vectors, intermediate hosts and rainfall. Repetition of a standardized seasonal calendar with Dinka informants demonstrated good reproducibility of the method. Comparison of rainfall data produced by seasonal calendars and objective measures of rainfall demonstrated good validity of the seasonal calendar method. Subjective assessment of seasonal calendar scoring patterns by veterinarians indicated that herders’ perceptions of seasonal populations of biting flies, ticks and snails were similar to modern veterinary knowledge. The uses of seasonal calendars in veterinary epidemiology are discussed.     

Participatory investigation of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in goats in the Hammer and Benna-Tsemay districts of southern Ethiopia

The study was conducted in two selected districts of Southern Omo zones of Ethiopia, namely Hammer and Benna-Tsemay, during November 2004 and May 2005 to determine the status of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). Participatory disease investigation was conducted in the goat flocks owned by pastoralists of the districts. Participatory methods such as proportionate piling and matrix scoring of diseases were used to characterise major diseases of goats. Clinical and post-mortem examinations and isolation of the causative agent of CCPP were done. Serological tests were conducted using CFT. CCPP (locally termed Sompo) ranked as the first important disease of goats in the study area. Local perception of causes and signs of CCPP were described. Matrix scoring between groups revealed that disease signs and causes showed weak, moderate and good agreement by Kendall’s coefficient concordance (W = 0.21–0.99). The overall sero-prevalence of CCPP was 15.5%. The causative agent was isolated from sick animals in the lab. The characteristic clinical signs, gross lesions, bacteriological isolation of the causative agent supported by participatory epidemiological disease investigation revealed that CCPP is a major disease of goats in the study districts. Participatory epidemiology using indigenous knowledge could efficiently be used to generate sufficient information with minimum cost, local materials and within reasonably short period of time, assisting the designing of feasible disease control programme in developing countries.     

Food animal veterinary medicine: leading a changing profession

The veterinary profession has gone through periods of profound change in response to economic and social changes. We are currently in another such period: profound change is required in order for the profession to remain relevant in a marketplace where a rapidly expanding knowledge base and new technologies demand an ever-increasing level of expertise in a greater variety of areas. However, the veterinary profession is perceived both internally and by the public as possessing a narrow set of skills that supports a narrow group of careers focused on salvaging ill or injured companion animals. It will be necessary to dramatically change the way veterinary students are recruited and trained, as well as how graduate veterinarians are licensed and provided continuing education, in order for the veterinary profession to capitalize on our historical strengths and provide service and leadership in a greater diversity of career paths. Even though the number of veterinarians needed to provide primary care for livestock is decreasing, both the level of expertise demanded by livestock owners and the value of veterinary involvement on livestock farms are increasing. Colleges of veterinary medicine appear challenged to meet the changing needs for veterinary services in animal agriculture because of the declining percentage of veterinary students interested in food animal careers. Fortunately for animal agriculture, the skill set needed by food animal veterinarians is also needed by several emerging segments of the veterinary profession that have tremendous potential for rapid growth, including employment in all segments of food production systems, environmental monitoring and management, bio-security and disease eradication, laboratory diagnostics, and federal regulatory and bio-defense roles. Like previous periods of profound change, this moment in history will require creative thought, open discussion, and a willingness to step into the unknown.     

Application of participatory epidemiology techniques to investigate Newcastle disease among rural farmers in Zamfara state,Nigeria

Formal systems of inquiry are of limited value when working with rural communities in developing countries. The current research used alternative systems of inquiry and learning that involved applying participatory epidemiology (PE) techniques to collect veterinary information about Newcastle disease (ND) in rural areas. Results indicated that poultry constituted the largest proportion (42.4%) of livestock species kept, and the poultry diseases that local farmers callbingiri, ciwon-sufe,dankanoman-kaji, dangari, andgurdumu are consistent with modern veterinary knowledge of Newcastle disease, respiratory disease, coccidiosis, fowl pox, and ectoparasitism, respectively.Tsuwen zaki (lion's testicle;Cucumuis pustulatus) andgarafuni (balsam pear;Momordica balsamina) are traditional remedies used to prevent Newcastle disease. Local farmers are knowledgeable about common disease that affect their poultry; they have good diagnostic abilities and can recognize clinical signs. There should be improved veterinary outreach to share some of this information via active community participation, and PE should be incorporated into state and national disease surveillance systems.     

Animal health studies using participatory epidemiology in the Mandrare Valley, Madagascar

Pastoral herders in Madagascar have limited access to animal health workers and veterinary medicines, and more information on their livestock diseases is needed, so that effective animal health programmes can be implemented. In this study, participatory epidemiology methods were used to gather such information in the Mandrare Valley. These included pair-wise ranking and matrix scoring. Eleven diseases were deemed to be priorities by pair-wise ranking. Matrix scoring and characterisation showed that the informant groups associated many disease syndromes with the same diseases, indicating agreement and understanding of the key diseases. The Malagasy-named syndromes, Soko, Besorko and Mamany lio, which are gastrointestinal parasitism, clostridial disease and babesiosis, respectively, were identified by every informant group. A greater sample size may be needed to characterise the diseases precisely with matrix scoring because, in this study, the matrices’ scores had wide confidence intervals.     

Perceptions of Livestock Owners of Private Veterinary Practice in Ghana

Using the participatory appraisal approach, a study was designed to assess the perceptions of livestock owners on private delivery of veterinary services in two districts in the major livestock-producing area in Ghana. A significant proportion (74%, n = 180) were willing to patronize locally established veterinary practices. However, the respondents emphasized that the fees charged had to be reasonable and affordable. Factors identified as likely to discourage the use of the private provider included the inability of the provider to speak the local language; non-availability of credit facilities for services rendered by the provider; unreliability of personnel; poor interpersonal skills; lack of technical know-how; inability of the provider to make house calls or farm visits; and poor personal and work ethics. These findings provide information for prospective private veterinarians on the expectations of their clients and could be used in the preparation of veterinarians for private practice.     

西南部分地区中兽医验方收集分析与典型案例

中兽医是我国优秀的传统文化遗产,但随着近几年畜牧行业的发展和壮大,中兽医传统经方验方传承面临困境.为了改善这种困境,使中兽医更好应用于临床,服务于社会,传承并发扬中兽医学.研究选用问卷调查法,交流访谈法及文献资料法对西南片区中兽医验方进行收集,并对其进行归纳整理、分析,分析了验方来源地分布情况、验方使用时间情况、验方治...     

Using participatory epidemiological techniques to estimate the relative incidence and impact on livelihoods of livestock diseases amongst nomadic pastoralists in Turkana South District, Kenya

A participatory epidemiological (PE) study was carried out with Turkana pastoralists in Turkana South District, Kenya, to determine the relative incidence of livestock diseasess and their impact on livelihoods. A sub-location was used as the sampling unit. A sub-location is the smallest administrative unit and is occupied by clusters of families (called adakars) that share common grazing patterns. A total of 32 sub-locations were randomly selected for the study. At least one focus group discussion involving more than 10 people was held with each adakar. In addition, key informant interviews involving local leaders and animal health service providers were conducted before or after the group sessions. PE techniques that were used with the stock owners include participatory mapping, relative incidence scoring, proportional piling, disease impact matrix scoring, seasonal calendars and probing. The methods used were pre-tested in four sub-locations that were excluded from further study. The study revealed that goats, with median score of 33 (10th and 90th percentiles of 25, 44, respectively) and sheep, median score of 20.5 (15, 26) were perceived to be the most abundant livestock species while goats (median score of 32 [21, 56]) and camels (median score of 22.5 [11, 33]) contributed the most to the livelihoods of the pastoralists. For goats, the overall relative incidence scores of peste des petits ruminants (PPR), contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) and mange were 23.5% (15, 34), 25% (21, 45) and 20% (19, 28), respectively. The respective median scores for case fatality rates were 66% (45, 76.5), 62.5% (25, 100) and 73.2% (21.4, 85.7). Disease impact matrix scores indicated that mange was the most important disease of goats. Mange (range: 28–32%) and pox (range: 16–38%) were perceived to be the most prevalent diseases in camels. Livestock movements, limited access to veterinary services and stock theft were identified as key factors that contributed to the high prevalence and persistence of these diseases. This paper discusses strategies that could be used to control these diseases given the challenges associated with nomadic pastoralism and insecurity.     

Socio-economic factors influencing control of vector-borne diseases in the pastoralist system of south western Uganda

Research in control of tick-borne diseases and trypanosomosis, and their vectors, namely, ticks and tsetse flies respectively, has been on going for decades. However, very little attention has been paid to the socio-economic factors that are likely to influence the outcome of the interventions in the control of these diseases. Thus, this study was designed to investigate these factors, mainly the intra-household factors influencing decision-making in the control of Vector-borne diseases in the pastoralist areas of Uganda. These factors included: indigenous technical knowledge, household economic factors, and gender. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in the collection and analysis of data. The tools used for data collection included among others, participatory learning and action (PLA), and Case studies. The findings included the following: In pastoralist households, a big proportion of the household budget was allocated to vector-borne diseases control. In the male-headed households, men dominated decision-making on vector-borne diseases control, although the goals and priorities of men and women in these households were not the same. Also, vector-borne disease control was predominantly by use of modern veterinary drugs, and pastoralists treated sick cattle by themselves even in situations where there were veterinary personnel.     

Promotion of Private Veterinary Practice in Ghana: Perceptions of Veterinarians and Veterinary Technicians

A study was designed to identify factors perceived by veterinarians and veterinary technicians as likely to promote private veterinary practice in Ghana. The participatory appraisal approach was used. The response rates were 88% (n = 90), 100% (n = 9) and 86% (n = 200) for government field veterinarians, private veterinarians and government veterinary technicians, respectively. Significant proportions of government field veterinarians (67%, n = 79), and veterinary technicians (64%, n = 167) were willing to go into private practice if the necessary push was given. Factors perceived as likely to motivate them to go into private practice included availability of capital to cover start-up costs; provision of a vehicle; prospect of higher income; availability of loans with low interest rates; availability of credit facilities from suppliers; stable macroeconomic environment with low interest and inflation rates; high pet, poultry and livestock populations at locations earmarked for private practice; leasing of vacant government premises for use as clinic and for accommodation; and enforcement of legislation on private practice, especially that against moonlighting by government veterinarians and technicians. These should be considered and used in the promotion of private veterinary practice in Ghana.     

Perceived constraints to private veterinary practice in India

We used an exploratory study in two districts of West Bengal State, India to find out the constraints of private veterinary practice. Privatization of veterinary services is being seen as an alternative to government-sponsored veterinary services to livestock. In December 2000 to February 2001, 50 private veterinary practitioners were interviewed from the districts. Their opinion was that weak regulations about competition from illegal practitioners and the use of veterinary drugs, competition by animal-health technicians (who are likely to charge less than veterinarians), absence of efficient diagnostic-laboratory support, and lack of commercial livestock farming were the main constraints faced.     

The Use of Trypanocides and Antibiotics by Maasai Pastoralists

Information was collected on the use of veterinary drugs by Maasai pastoralists in an area of Kenya where tsetse flies and trypanosomosis occur. Three herds of cattle were followed for between 4 and 5 years and records were kept of every veterinary drug treatment given by the livestock owners. Almost all treatments were either with the trypanocides homidium or diminazene, or with oxytetracycline by intramuscular injection. The rate of trypanocide use varied between 0.66 and 1.56 treatments per animal per year, while oxytetracycline use was between 0.20 and 1.00 treatments per animal per year. Farmers were injecting these drugs in the absence of veterinary supervision, obtaining their supplies mainly from local village shops or informal traders. Underdosing with trypanocides appeared to be uncommon and the indications were that farmers generally gave the drugs at dosage rates above the recommended standard dose. Accurate information on the dose rates of oxytetracycline could not be obtained, but it was noted that in most cases farmers gave a single injection rather than a course of treatment. In a proportion of cases, trypanocides and antibiotics were mixed together before injection. The farmers administered the drugs when disease was recognized and were rarely using trypanocides as prophylactics. Although necessity forces the livestock owners to obtain and use these drugs without veterinary supervision, there are concerns with regard to the possibility of drug misuse and the development of drug resistance.     

Strategies,Effectiveness and Rationale of Vector-borne Disease Control in the Pastoralist System of South-western Uganda

In Uganda, control of vector-borne diseases is mainly in form of vector control, and chemotherapy. There have been reports that acaricides are being misused in the pastoralist systems in Uganda. This is because of the belief by scientists that intensive application of acaricide is uneconomical and unsustainable particularly in the indigenous cattle. The objective of this study was to investigate the strategies, rationale and effectiveness of vector-borne disease control by pastoralists. To systematically carry out these investigations, a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods was used, in both the collection and the analysis of data. Cattle keepers were found to control tick-borne diseases (TBDs) mainly through spraying, in contrast with the control of trypanosomosis for which the main method of control was by chemotherapy. The majority of herders applied acaricides weekly and used an acaricide of lower strength than recommended by the manufacturers. They used very little acaricide wash, and spraying was preferred to dipping. Furthermore, pastoralists either treated sick animals themselves or did nothing at all, rather than using veterinary personnel. Oxytetracycline (OTC) was the drug commonly used in the treatment of TBDs. Nevertheless, although pastoralists may not have been following recommended practices in their control of ticks and tick-borne diseases, they were neither wasteful nor uneconomical and their methods appeared to be effective. Trypanosomosis was not a problem either in Sembabule or Mbarara district. Those who used trypanocides were found to use more drugs than were necessary.     

Optimizing the use of breed types in developing country livestock production systems: a neglected research area

Developing country livestock production systems are diverse and dynamic, and include those where existing indigenous breeds are currently optimal and likely to remain so, those where non‐indigenous breed types are already in common use, and systems that are changing, such as by intensification, where the introduction of new breed types represents significant opportunities. These include opportunities to improve the livelihood of the world's poor, increase food and nutrition security and enhance environmental sustainability. At present, very little research has focused on this issue, such that significant knowledge gaps in relation to breed‐change interventions remain. The purpose of this study is to raise awareness of this issue and suggests strategic research areas to begin filling these knowledge gaps. Such strategic research would include (i) assessing the impact of differing breed types in developing country livestock productions systems, from a range of viewpoints including intrahousehold livelihood benefit, food and nutrition security at different scales, and environmental sustainability; (ii) identification of specific livestock production systems within developing countries, and the type of livestock keepers within these system, that are most likely to benefit from new breed types; and (iii) identification of new breed types as candidates for in‐situ testing within these systems, such as through the use of spatial analysis to identify similar production environments combined with community acceptance studies. Results of these studies would primarily assist stakeholders in agriculture, including both policy makers and livestock keepers, to make informed decisions on the potential use of new breed types.     

Ethnoveterinary medicine practices among Tsonga speaking people of South Africa

Rapid Rural Appraisal methods were used to collate and code the indigenous knowledge on animal healthcare of Tsonga speaking people of South Africa. There was a rapport between local disease names as described by their clinical signs by the farmers and the local veterinary services important disease list. The perceived causes of diseases were physico-biological elements and no reference to ancestral guidance was recorded. Males and old people were more knowledgeable but females and young people did show a certain degree of confidence during general discussions. Plants were more frequently used than other non-conventional remedies with cattle being the most treated animals. Farmers reported using 19 plant species belonging to 12 families. Plants were collected from the wild when needed and no specific storage system was used. They were administered as decoctions or infusions of single plants. These remedies were used not only as alternatives to expensive pharmaceutical products but also because in certain diseases or chronic cases, they were thought to be more efficacious.     

Ethnoveterinary medical practice for ruminants in the subhumid zone of northern Nigeria

Ethnoveterinary medical practice is widespread among herdsmen and village livestock producers in northern Nigeria where livestock in the country are concentrated. For most of these livestock owners, modern veterinary inputs and services are not readily available and are relatively expensive. Traditional remedies are locally available and cheaper. Our questioning of 50 herdsmen and village livestock producers revealed that the ingredients used in these indigenous practices include plant extracts, seeds, leaves, barks of trees, tubers and roots of various plants. These are processed in various ways and administered to animals for a variety of disease conditions. More recently used ingredients include kerosene and spent engine oil. Considering the combination of ingredients used by the traditional animal-health practitioners, it is likely that additive, synergistic and nutritional effects might be involved in alleviating the problem of ill-health in animals. Herdsmen and livestock owners readily identify signs of disease (although some common infectious diseases have several signs and may affect various parts of the animal body). Aspects of indigenous health care practices are contrasted with modern veterinary health care.     

Educational preparedness of veterinarians for foreign animal diseases

Veterinary medical education in FADs has been and will continue to be critically important if veterinarians are expected to fulfill the profession's primary obligations to society--those of protecting our animals' health, conserving our animal resources, and promoting public health. It is imperative that curricula and instruction in veterinary schools and colleges provide the depth and breadth of knowledge and understanding necessary to prepare all veterinarians, including those in private practice, for their key role in defending against FADs. Development and implementation of governmental and military programs to diagnose, prevent, control, and eradicate FADs will require a dedicated cadre of public sector veterinarians who have a solid educational foundation in FADs and understand the contemporary issues and global challenges we face. Animal-related industries, associations, and organizations will increasingly rely on well-educated veterinarians to help guide them in ways that will protect animals, clientele, consumers, and trading partners from effects of FADs. Agencies and organizations concerned with conservation of animal resources will require veterinary expertise necessary to prevent FADs in a multitude of animal species, including marine animals, wildlife, endangered species, zoologic specimens, and important genetic lines as well as our domestic companion and livestock species. Species affected by FADs also include human beings for those disease agents with zoonotic potential; thus, veterinary education also plays a key role in public health.     

Veterinary medicine educational requirements to meet the needs of the US Agency for International Development

The US Agency for International Development (USAID) works within the overall purpose of US foreign assistance to improve the lives of the citizens of the developing world. Through partnerships with other agencies, organizations, and governments, and using its field offices around the world, USAID strives to develop local capacity and thus build sustainable development. Two specific USAID programs pertinent to veterinary medicine are global health and agriculture. In the area of global health, veterinarians can aid USAID's work to improve the quality, availability, and use of essential health services that specifically target maternal and child health, HIV/AIDS, family planning and reproductive health, infectious diseases, environmental health, nutrition, and other life-saving areas. The challenge of making the agricultural sector in a developing country more productive is a critical one for USAID and a clear area for input from the veterinary profession. Animal agriculture is the largest single sector of agricultural economies in most developing countries, and livestock remains a critical component of poverty alleviation. There are educational requirements that benefit anyone working at USAID and can be met prior to admittance to a DVM program, as part of a DVM curriculum, or in post-graduate training/employment, such as proficiency in a foreign language; environmental sciences background; familiarity with accounting and management techniques; expertise in foreign animal diseases, zoonotic diseases, epidemiology, food safety, and nutrition, as well as the application to human health of those areas; an advanced degree such as an MPH; and management experience. Appropriately trained veterinarians can make enormous contributions to USAID's global efforts to improve the health and agriculture sectors of developing nations.