Flesh quality of Atlantic salmon smolts reared at different temperatures and photoperiods

Possible interactive effects of temperature and photoperiod on flesh quality in Atlantic salmon post‐smolts were studied. Juvenile (initial mean weight 96.0 g ± 3.1 SEM) Atlantic salmon were reared at six different combinations of temperatures (4.3, 6.5 or 9.3°C) and photoperiods (continuous light or simulated natural photoperiod). At termination of the trial, the fish were slaughtered and flesh samples taken to investigate quality and textural properties in the different experimental groups. Final weight in the six experimental groups varied between 174 and 345 g. Softer texture was seen in the fast growing groups. Photoperiod has only minor effect on flesh quality and textural properties, whereas temperature had significant impact on most of the measured variables. Although positive for growth, higher temperatures might be less favourable in relation to softer muscle tissue.     

Growth and age at first maturity in turbot and halibut reared under different photoperiods

The effect of extended photoperiods on growth and age at first maturity was investigated in 166 (79 females and 87 males) individually tagged Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus and in 114 (50 females and 64 males) individually tagged turbot Scophthalmus maximus. The halibut were reared at 11 °C on four different light regimes from 10 February to 6 July 1996: simulated natural photoperiod, (LDN), continuous light (LD24:0), constant 8 h light and 16 h darkness (LD8:16) and LD8:16 switched to continuous light 4 May 1996 (LD8:16–24:0). From 6 July 1996 to 9 February 1998 the LD24:0 and LD8:16–24:0 were reared together under continuous light and the LDN and LD8:16 together under natural photoperiod. The turbot were reared at 16 °C on three different light regimes: constant light (LD24:0), 16 h light:8 h darkness (LD16:8), or simulated natural photoperiod (LDN). After 6 months on the different photoperiods, the turbot was reared together on LDN for approximately 12 months until first maturation. Juveniles subjected to continuous light (halibut) or extended photoperiods (halibut and turbot) exhibited faster growth than those experiencing a natural photoperiod or a constant short day. Moreover, when the photoperiod increased naturally with day-length or when fish were abruptly switched from being reared on short-day conditions to continuous light, a subsequent increase in growth rate was observed. This growth enhancing effect of extended photoperiods was more apparent on a short time scale in Atlantic halibut than in turbot, but both species show significant long-term effects of extended photoperiods in the form of enhanced growth. In both species lower maturation of males was seen in groups exposed to extended or continuous light compared to LDN and this could be used to reduce precocious maturation in males leading to overall increase in somatic growth. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The relation between age at first maturity and growth in Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) reared at four different light regimes

The effect of extended photoperiods on growth and age at first maturity was investigated in 166 (79 females and 87 males) individually tagged Atlantic halibut. The halibut were reared at 11°C on four different light regimes from 10 February to 6 July 1996: simulated natural photoperiod, (LDN), continuous light (LD24:0), constant 8 h light and 16 h darkness (LD8:16) and LD8:16 switched to continuous light on 4 May 1996 (LD8:16–24:0). From 6 July 1996 to 9 February 1998 the LD24:0 and LD8:16–24:0 were reared together under continuous light and the LDN and LD8:16 together under natural photoperiod. Juveniles subjected to continuous light exhibited faster growth than those experiencing a natural photoperiod or a constant short day. Moreover, the results suggest an overall growth enhancing effect of continuous light in females, but not in males. No females matured during the trial, but the proportion of mature males differed between the photoperiod groups, with significantly fewer males maturing in groups reared at continuous light. Independent of photoperiod regime and maturation status, females were significantly bigger than males from 14 April 1997 onwards. Immature males were bigger than maturing males from 23 March 1996 onwards. As continuous light reduced maturation at age 2+ in males, this could be used to reduce precocious maturation in males.     

Effects of altered photoperiod regimes during winter on growth and gonadosomatic index in Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) reared in freshwater

The short‐ and long‐term effects of altered photoperiods during winter on growth and final gonadosomatic index (GSI) were investigated in 178 individually tagged 2‐year‐old smolt Arctic charr from an anadromous strain. The fish were reared at ambient temperature (2.3–12.5°C) for 18 months and reared at five different photoperiods. One group was reared on constant LD16:8 (light–dark, N = 40) photoperiod and a second group on continuous light (LD24:0, N = 32) throughout the experimental period. Three groups of fish were moved from LD16:8 to LD24:0 for 44 days and subsequently back to LD16:8, that is early winter light group (Early WL: 17 November–5 January; N = 35), Mid WL group (5 January–23 February; N = 38) and Late WL group (23 February–6 April; N = 33). No differences in growth were found for females, whereas males reared at constant LD24:0 were larger (mean ± SEM, 1,780 g ± 180) compared with the Late (1,264 g ± 101) and Mid WL (1,413 g ± 120) groups towards the end the study. Exposure to continuous light during early winter significantly influenced the GSI in female Arctic charr, whereas no differences were found in the males. Female GSI (%) was lowest in the Mid WL group (1.7) and highest in the LD24:0 group (7.0). In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that application of brief continuous light treatments during January and February can possibly be used as a tool to lower subsequent female maturation in Arctic charr farming.     

Growth and blood chemistry of Atlantic halibut (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hippoglossus hippoglossus</Emphasis> L.) in relation to salinity and continuous light

In order to study the possible interactive effects of salinity and photoperiod on growth, feed conversion, and blood chemistry in juvenile halibut, 2,604 (initial mean weight 26.8 g ± 0.2 SEM) juvenile halibut were exposed to six different combinations of salinities (13, 21, or 27‰) and photoperiods [continuous light, C and simulated natural photoperiod (65°N), SNP] for 129 days. Improved (10–20%) growth and 10–24% higher feed conversion efficiency were observed at low and intermediate salinities compared to the high salinity groups. Improved feed conversion efficiency (20%) and temporary growth enhancing effects (10%) of continuous light were observed, but effects faded out as day length in the simulated natural photoperiod group increased. No interactive effects of photoperiod and salinity on growth feed conversion or measured blood chemistry variables (blood sodium, pH level, haematocrit, bicarbonate content, and total carbon dioxide). It is suggested that juvenile Atlantic halibut should be reared at low and intermediate salinities and at continuous light, as this will improve growth and increase feed conversion efficiency.     

Long-term effect of photoperiod manipulation on growth, maturation and flesh quality in Atlantic halibut

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of continuous light at different stages during the production cycle of Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus L. on growth, age at first maturity, endocrine parameters and flesh quality. A group of juvenile halibut [mean (SD), initial weight 191.3 g (44.7)] was reared in indoor tanks under ambient temperature conditions for 38 months until harvesting (mean final weight, 4.6 kg). The entire photoperiod experiment was divided into four phases, where the fish in each phase were exposed to either natural photoperiod (62°33'N) or continuous light (L). Thus, the following five photoperiod combinations were tested: (a) Control group (NNNN), (b) Group 2A (NLNN), (c) Group 2B (NNLN), (d) Group 2C (NNNL) and (e) Production group (LNNN). Exposure to continuous light stimulated growth, and the final mean weights of Groups 2A and 2B were 23% and 11% higher than those of the Control group (NNNN). The final plasma 11-ketotestosteron levels were lower in Groups 2A (2.94 ng mL⁻¹) and 2B (2.46 ng mL⁻¹) compared with the Control (5.29 ng mL⁻¹), Group 2C (5.09 ng mL⁻¹) and the Production group (4.78 ng mL⁻¹) during spring 2007 (age 4 years), indicating higher age at first maturity in Groups 2A and 2B. Photoperiod regime had only a minor, and transient, effect on flesh-quality traits of the fish, whereas a significant seasonal effect was seen with a tendency towards increased gaping, lower pH, lower hardness and lower shear force in July compared with December and March.     

The effects of a prolonged photoperiod and light source on growth,sexual maturation,fin condition,and vulnerability to fungal disease in brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis

The effects of an artificially prolonged photoperiod on growth, survival rate, colouration, and sexual maturation in brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis during pre‐ and post‐spawning periods from 21 June to 06 November were investigated. Fish of mean initial weight ?150 g were reared at ambient photoperiod as well as with an artificially prolonged photoperiod produced by either a light‐emitting diode or a metal‐halide light. The fish groups subjected to a prolonged period of artificial light grew significantly larger and had a higher survival rate (p < 0.05), regardless of sex, and showed lower occurrence of fungal disease compared to controls reared in the natural photoperiod. We found a significantly higher number of sexually mature fish in the control groups compared with experimental groups. The increased photoperiod effectively delayed gonad development and increased somatic growth in both male and female brook trout, and also increased resistance to fungal disease. The increased photoperiod produced an observable difference in fish colouration, with control groups exhibiting more intensive spawning colouration.     

Growth and survival of winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) larvae reared on different photoperiod regimes from hatch to metamorphosis

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of photoperiod on growth and survival of winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus, from hatch until metamorphosis. Sixteen 100 L upwelling tanks were stocked with larvae at an initial stocking density of 20 larvae/L. Larvae in eight tanks were provided with continuous light (24 hr light/0 hr dark), while those in the remaining eight tanks were grown under a photoperiod of 14 hr light/10 hr dark. Tanks were sampled for larval standard lengh from 6 to 28 days post‐hatch, and the number of live larvae, live metamorphosed and dead metamorphosed fish were recorded at the termination of the experiment (starting 46 dph). Results indicated that larvae provided with continuous light were larger than those sampled from 14 hr light/10 hr dark treatment. No effect of photoperiod on the number of non‐metamorphosed fish recovered at the end of the experiment was detected. On the contrary, over three times as many fish survived and reached metamorphosis under continuous light. An ANCOVA model showed a significant interaction between light and age. Both regressions were significant and provided the following growth equations: SL_{24 hr light/0 hr dark} = 0.101 × age + 2.55 (r² = 0.96) and SL_{14 hr light/10 hr dark} = 0.094 × age +2.45 (r² = 0.97). Using 6.36 ± 0.059 mm SL as the mean size at metamorphosis, larvae experiencing continuous and 14 hr light/10 hr dark photoperiods would reach metamorphosis in 38 and 42 days respectively.     

The effect of timing of extended photoperiod on growth and maturity of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)

The influence of timing of extended photoperiods on growth and maturity of brook trout was investigated in a 112‐day experiment. The fish with mean initial weight of ~192 g were reared under four light regimes: one control group with natural ambient photoperiod and three groups exposed to an 18L:6D regime initiated at days 1, 23 or 46 of the growth trial. Light‐emitting diodes, with intensity of 250–1000 lux, depending on the distance from the light source, were used for extending light periods. There was a positive effect of prolonged day length on fish growth (p < 0.05), and a delay in gonad development and sexual maturity. Significantly higher numbers of sexually mature fish were found among controls groups, regardless of sex. Survival rate was not affected by light regime. This study demonstrated that the short‐term expansion of the photo period delayed maturation and increased the growth rate of brook trout.     

Effects of starvation,subsequent feeding and photoperiod on flesh quality in farmed cod (Gadus morhua)

The study was designed to investigate the effect of four cycles of 5 weeks starvation followed by 10‐week refeeding compared with daily feeding under either natural photoperiod or continuous light (LL) regime on body composition and flesh quality in Atlantic cod in sea cages, northern Norway. The fish were sampled for body composition and flesh quality parameters at the start of the trial, twice at the end of a 10‐week feeding period and twice at the end of a 5‐week starvation period. There was effect of both feeding and light regime on growth, the two starving groups losing weight during starvation and regaining weight during refeeding, and the group under LL being heavier. But, the mean overall growth did not vary between groups. Starvation/refeeding regime resulted in higher slaughter yield, but no overall effect was seen on hepatosomatic index, water content, water holding capacity (WHC), muscle pH, hardness or flesh colour compared with control groups. Continuous light increased gutted weight and slaughter yield, lowered WHC and depressed maturation compared with fish under natural light regime. Increased growth rate resulted in softer fillets and lower muscle pH.     

Induced maturation and fertilized egg production of the red‐spotted grouper,Epinephelus akaara,using adaptive physiology of photoperiod and water temperature

As a preliminary investigation into the effects of environmental factors on gonadal development using adaptive physiological characteristics, we examined the involvement of photoperiod and water temperature in the ovarian development of the red‐spotted grouper, Epinephelus akaara. During October 2014 (non‐breeding season), the photoperiod and water temperature were adjusted to 12L:12D and 18°C respectively. Every 3 weeks, daylight was increased as follows a 13L:11D and 14L:10D in the photo‐thermal treatment group, and the control group was maintained under natural conditions. After 9 weeks, water temperature was increased to 23°C in the photo‐thermal treatment group. In photo‐thermal treatment group, GSI increased significantly after 9 weeks (1.36 ± 0.19) and 12 weeks (3.31 ± 0.20) compared with the control group. At 12 weeks after photo‐thermal treatment, all fishes matured into ovaries containing late vitellogenic oocytes. The expression of FSHβ and LHβ mRNAs also increased significantly. However, in the control group, the ovarian development was maintained at an immature stage. Based on these results, we demonstrate that exposure to long photoperiod and high water temperature can induce the sexual maturation of immature red‐spotted grouper during the non‐breeding season.     

Influence of photoperiod and temperature manipulation on gonadal development and spawning in Caspian roach (Rutilus rutilus caspicus): Implications for artificial propagation

Caspian roach (Rutilus rutilus caspicus), a spring spawning teleost, were subjected to various photoperiod and temperature regimes to study the feasibility of shifting the timing of spawning for artificial propagation purposes. A total of 650 female reproductively mature R. rutilus caspicus were subjected to different photoperiod and temperature regimes including four light regimes (natural light (NL), 16 hr of light (L):8 hr of darkness (D), 9L:15D, 11L:13D), each affected by three temperature regimes (14, 20 and 24°C) for 70 days. Five fish per tank were randomly sampled on Feb. 10, Feb. 20, March 28, April 15 and April 30 (natural spawning time). Ovarian tissue sections were studied using light microscope and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The levels of 17‐β estradiol (E2) and 17α‐hydroxyprogesterone (OHP) were also measured in the serum samples. In late winter (March 28th), the gonadal maturation and spawning were accelerated in fish treated with the long day length (16L/8D) and warm temperature (20°C). While, the maturation of oocytes and spawning delayed in fish exposed to low temperature (14°C) and short day length (9L/15D and 11L/13D). Photoperiod seems to play a more important role in the ovarian development of the R. rutilus caspicus compared to temperature; since even among the fish treated with the lowest temperature (14°C), those exposed to a longer day length (16L/8D), matured and spawned earlier than the others. Considering that the earliest spawning occurred in R. rutilus caspicus treated with 16L/8D at 20°C and the latest spawning occurred in fish exposed to low temperature and short photoperiod, it can be concluded that temperature and photoperiod play an important role in accelerating oocyte maturation and spawning.     

Effects of photoperiod on growth performance and melanogenesis pathway for skin pigmentation of Malaysian red tilapia

Farming of red tilapia is increasing rapidly. However, its commercial farming development is challenged by lack of clear information on genetic basis for skin colour and pigmentation differences due to environmental changes. This study investigated the effects of photoperiod (light:dark, L:D) on the growth and skin colour variation of Malaysian red tilapia. A total of 180 fish weighing 150.48 ± 0.44 g were reared under natural photoperiod (13L:11D, control), prolonged lightness (24L:0D) and prolonged darkness (0L:24D) in three replicates for 78 days. The weight gain of fish cultured under both prolonged light and darkness were significantly higher than fish under natural photoperiod. The tyrosinase level in ventral skin was significantly higher for fish cultured under prolonged darkness condition than in the other two photoperiod regimes. Contrary, the cysteine level in the dorsal skin was significantly higher in the fish cultured under natural photoperiod than in prolonged light and darkness. The relative mRNA expressions of SRY‐related HMG‐Box 10 (sox 10), tyrosine (tyr), tyrosine‐related protein 1 (tyrp‐1) and solute carrier family 7 member 11 (slc7a11) genes were significantly higher in ventral skin of fish under prolonged darkness than the other two photoperiods. This study demonstrates that photoperiod has an impact on melanogenesis and growth of red tilapia. Understanding the effects of photoperiod on genetic basis of red tilapia will help in selective breeding programme of the important economic traits for the development of commercial red tilapia farming.     

The Effect of Photoperiod on Sexual Maturation,Appetite and Growth in Wild Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua L.)

An experiment was conducted to examine (a) the effects of photoperiod on timing of sexual maturation (b) the relationship between plasma steroid levels, appetite and growth in male and female Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.). Wild caught Norwegian coastal cod were subjected to either a 6L/18D photoperiod typical of January at 60° N-(Short day group) or a simulated natural photoperiod (Normal day group) from June 2000 until spawning started. Appetite of individual fish were measured twice weekly, while weight, length and plasma levels of the sex steroids testosterone (T), 11 keto-testosterone (11-KT) and estradiol-17β (E2) were monitored bimonthly. Cod in the Short day group matured 3 months ahead of the cod in the Normal day group and started spawning in early November. Appetite decreased in both sexes 2–3 months prior to spawning in both groups, but this reduction was stronger among males. In both sexes, length growth was reduced concurrently with the appetite loss. Overall, females had significantly higher somatic growth, put relatively less energy into length growth and had developed larger livers compared to males at the time of spawning in the Short day group. Plasma steroid levels increased in both groups throughout the experiment, reaching peak levels of ca 10 ng ml⁻¹ (T) and 15–20 ng ml⁻¹ (11-KT) in males, and 1.5–2 ng ml⁻¹ (T) and 12–18 ng ml⁻¹ (E2) in females at the onset of spawning. Steroid levels increased more rapidly among Short day cod verifying the earlier onset of maturation. These results confirm that photoperiod is a major cue to maturation in cod and imply that the high cost of spawning for females incur differences in appetite between the sexes.     

Interaction of temperature and photoperiod on growth of Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.

The combined effect of temperature and photoperiod on the growth of juvenile Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus (initial weight 11.6 g) was investigated under different temperature (6 °C and 12 °C) and photoperiod (continuous light and simulated natural photoperiod) combinations by studying the effects on fish weight, specific growth rate (SGR), feed consumption (F%), feed conversion (FCE) and oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion under routine and fasting conditions. SGR was greater at the higher temperature, and growth was faster under continuous light than under natural photoperiod, irrespective of temperature, SGRs being 0.83% and 0.98%, and 1.61% and 1.71% at 6 °C and 12 °C respectively. The weight data revealed a significant interaction between temperature and light, and provided evidence of a stronger growth‐enhancing effect of continuous light at the lower temperature. F% increased with temperature but was independent of photoperiod, whereas FCE was higher among fish exposed to continuous light, irrespective of temperature. Independently of photoperiod, oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion increased with temperature, but the differences in these rates in relation to photoperiod became more pronounced at the lower temperature, where continuous light gave the highest rates. Higher oxygen consumption during darkness suggested that light may suppress activity in halibut. It was proposed that reduced activity and anabolic effects of photoperiod contribute to explain the increased growth and growth efficiency in fish subjected to continuous light.     

Optimal temperature and photoperiod for the spawning of blue crab,Callinectes sapidus,in captivity

Like all poikilotherms, the growth and reproduction of blue crab, Callinectes sapidus depends on temperature and season. Warmer water temperatures in the Chesapeake Bay allow for ovarian development and spawning, while colder water temperatures slow their metabolism and reproduction. The current study aimed to identify optimal environmental conditions for inducing reproduction in animals held in long‐term captivity for year round production in aquaculture through environmental manipulations. Temperature and photoperiod were the main environmental factors tested for 25 weeks: 11°C and 21°C, with the following photoperiods: 0L:24D, 8L:16D, 16L:8D and 24L:0D. At 21°C, the females increased spawning frequency, which was arrested at 11°C. Shorter light exposure at 21°C increased spawning frequency, while constant light inhibited and did not produce spawning. Constant dark (0L:24D) at 21°C produced the most (86%) spawns, but yielded poor larval quality. At 21°C with all photoperiod conditions except constant light, the first spawning took 94.8 ± 32.4 days to occur (n = 17). With females producing multiple spawns, the intervals between the first and second spawns and the second and third spawns were 37.7 ± 8.7 days (n = 6) and 31.0 ± 7.1 days (n = 2) respectively. Analysis of our data using response surface methodology (RSM) predicts the following conditions: at 15–19°C and 0–10 hr darkness for maximal survival and at 19–22°C and 0–8 hr darkness for spawning. The number of larvae produced was positively correlated with size (weight) of the female C. sapidus, suggesting the importance of female size in reproduction.     

Vertical distribution and sexual maturation in cage‐farming of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) exposed to natural or continuous light

The vertical distribution and seasonal timing of sexual maturation were investigated in Atlantic cod in four large commercial sea cages in Northern Norway during their second year of on‐growth. Replicate cages were exposed to either natural light (NL) or continuous light (LL) from May 2007 to January 2008. Hydro‐acoustic monitoring revealed that the cod in the NL cages were mainly distributed from 5 to 13 m depth at day while they were more dispersed and swam deeper at night. A clear ascent was observed prior to feeding events. The cod in the LL cages displayed a similar seasonal and daily pattern, but with a more dispersed vertical distribution range at both day and night. It is hypothesized that surface feeding motivation resulted in cod preferentially occupying the upper reaches of the sea cage, generally at depths < 13 m. This would also reduce the need for excessive alterations in swim bladder volume. Both the LL and the NL groups were exposed to LL the year before the study, resulting in first time sexual maturation (puberty) being delayed until the summer in both groups. However, while cod in the NL cages matured during the autumn 2007, the LL cod did not.     

The effect of light intensity on the growth of Brachymystax lenok (Pallas, 1773)

A 35‐day experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of light intensity on growth of Brachymystax lenok under different light intensities: 10, 70, 240 and 1000 lx. Fish(5.5 ± 0.24 g)used in the experiment were fed to satiation twice a day (08:00 hours, 14:00 hours).The photoperiod was 12L:12D (08:00–20:00 hours). The specific growth rate(SGR) of B. lenok under lower intensities(10 lx,70 lx)was significantly higher than the other groups(P < 0.05).No significant difference in feed intake was observed at different light intensities, but feed efficiency (FE) in wet weight at lower intensities (1070 lx) was higher than that at higher intensities(240,1000 lx) (P < 0.05).The final survival rate of juveniles varied from 86.33% to 93.66%,and there was no significant difference between experimental groups. The tested fish under higher light intensities (240 and 1000 lx) spent much more energy in respiration and excretion while depositing less energy for growth than those fish under lower light intensities. It is concluded that light intensity significantly affected growth and optimal light intensity for B. lenok juveniles was about 10–70 lx.     

Growth, feed conversion efficiency and growth heterogeneity in Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) reared at three different photoperiods

Juvenile Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus (initial weight (SD) 191.3 (±44.7)) g, were reared for 99 days at a constant temperature of 11°C and subjected to three different light regimes from 13 September to 21 December: continuous light (LD24:0), simulated natural photoperiod of Bergen (60°25′N, LDN) and constant 20 h light:4 h dark (LD20:4). The fish reared on the different photoperiod regimes differed in their growth patterns as juveniles exposed to long days, i.e. LD20:4 and LD24:0, exhibited faster growth than those experiencing a natural photoperiod. The LD20:4 group showed the highest average specific growth rate (0.72% body weight day^?1), whereas fish on LDN displayed the lowest average specific growth rate (0.60% body weight day^?1). The final mean weights of the LD20:4 and the LD24:0 groups were 15% and 12% higher than those of the LDN group. Dividing the duration of the experiment into three time periods shows that the LD20:4 and LD24:0 had a higher feed conversion efficiency (FCE) as compared with the LDN group during the first and the last period, while a reversed situation was observed in the second period. Our data indicate a larger variation in growth rates among individuals in the best‐performing groups (here LD20:4 and LD24:0). This may indicate that formation of size hierarchies is more pronounced in groups with more homogenous growth (here LDN). Overall, our findings indicate that extended light regimes result in faster growth and better feed conversion in juvenile Atlantic halibut. In line with findings on other flatfish species, this supports the concept that constant long day:short night or continuous light regimes should be used by the farmer in order to maximize growth and improve feed conversion in Atlantic halibut.     

Effect of stocking density,oxygen level,light regime and swimming velocity on the incidence of sexual maturation in adult Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

The effects of various environmental parameters on sexual maturation of two sea-winter Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were tested in two separate experiments. In the first experiment Atlantic salmon with initial mean individual weight 1.5 kg (smolt 13 months before) were reared for 8 months from June to February at different oxygen levels and stocking densities using continuous light. Oxygen levels of 5–7, 7.5–9.5 and 10–12 mg O₂ l⁻¹ and stocking densities starting at about 20, 30 and 40 kg m⁻³ and increasing as the fish grew to 80–90 kg m⁻³ for the highest densities were tested in a factorial design. Only male fish matured, and incidence of maturation among males varied from 4.1% to 25% between tanks. The highest percentage of mature males was found in the tanks with low stocking density. No clear effect on oxygen level was found.The second experiment lasted 20 months from seawater transfer in May until the fish weighed 3.3–3.5 kg. Two water current speeds (14–16 and 20–24 cm s⁻¹) and two photoperiod regimes (LD 20:4) and continuous light (LL) were tested in a factorial design. Neither swimming velocity nor photoperiod affected growth rate. Continuous light reduced the incidence of sexual maturation. The average proportion of maturation among males was 8% and 25% under the LL and LD 20:4 regimes respectively. The fish reared under the LD 20:4 light regime had a significant lower condition factor and significant larger hearts than the fish reared under continuous light. Swimming velocity had no significant effect on the incidence of maturation. The results indicate that the swimming velocity must be higher than 0.5 BL s⁻¹ in order to influence the energy stores. An important finding in this study is that light cues are not required for gonadal growth. The results also indicate that environmental factors can affect maturation even after the first sea-winter.