What makes us human: revisiting an age-old question in the genomic era

In 1970, Karl Pribram took on the immense challenge of asking the question, what makes us human? Nearly four decades later, the most significant finding has been the undeniable realization of how incredibly subtle and fine-scaled the unique biological features of our species must be. The recent explosion in the availability of large-scale sequence data, however, and the consequent emergence of comparative genomics, are rapidly transforming the study of human evolution. The field of comparative genomics is allowing us to reach unparalleled resolution, reframing our questions in reference to DNA sequence – the very unit that evolution operates on. But like any reductionist approach, it comes at a price. Comparative genomics may provide the necessary resolution for identifying rare DNA sequence differences in a vast sea of conservation, but ultimately we will have to face the challenge of figuring out how DNA sequence divergence translates into phenotypic divergence. Our goal here is to provide a brief outline of the major findings made in the study of human brain evolution since the Pribram lecture, focusing specifically on the field of comparative genomics. We then discuss the broader implications of these findings and the future challenges that are in store.     

Who's afraid of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Homo sapiens</Emphasis>?

Understanding how humans differ from other animals, as well as how we are like them, requires comparative investigations. For the purpose of documenting the distinctive features of humans, the most informative research involves comparing humans to our closest relatives–the chimpanzees and other great apes. Psychology and anthropology have maintained a tradition of empirical comparative research on human specializations of cognition. The neurosciences, by contrast, have been dominated by the model-animal research paradigm, which presupposes the commonality of "basic" features of brain organization across species and discourages serious treatment of species differences. As a result, the neurosciences have made little progress in understanding human brain specializations. Recent developments in neuroimaging, genomics, and other non-invasive techniques make it possible to directly compare humans and nonhuman species at levels of organization that were previously inaccessible, offering the hope of gaining a better understanding of the species-specific features of the human brain. This hope will be dashed, however, if chimpanzees and other great ape species become unavailable for even non-invasive research.     

农业科研单位人力资源管理中人才流失的成因与风险管理

从农业科研单位人力资源流失的现状入手，对人才流失的特征和原因进行分析和研究，提出农业科研单位人才流失的风险识别，有针对性的从管理制度、团队文化、岗位设置、人才信息管理和人才梯队建设等5个方面提出应对农业科研单位人才流失风险的管理对策。     

衡阳紫色土区自然环境特点与植被生态恢复

衡阳地区是湖南省紫色土区的主要分布区之一,植被稀疏而贫乏.该紫色土区的自然环境主要有两大特点:年降水量虽大,但蒸发量更大;土壤瘠薄,基岩裸露,水土流失严重.基于此,提出应划分适宜的生态植被恢复区域,根据原生演替规律,选定适宜于紫色土区植被生态恢复模式和技术措施等对策,使紫色土区植被“短、平、快”地恢复.     

城市绿道系统使用状况评价及优化策略研究——以大连金州绿道为例

为了使大连金州新区绿道更好地为使用者服务，提升城市的人居环境，从使用者的角度出发，运用使用后评价法(POE)，通过对绿道使用情况观察分析、对使用者进行问卷调查及访谈，研究使用者对绿道的使用需求，对金州绿道系统的使用情况进行评价。研究发现：金州新区绿道在绿道规划、交通换乘与可达性、服务设施、文化特色、宣传工作等方面存在不足；针对研究中发现的不足，提供具体优化策略，为大连金州绿道系统优化提供建议。同时也是对绿道系统进行优化的指导性方法。     

黑龙江省马铃薯生产企业发展现状与发展对策

黑龙江省是我国马铃薯的主要产地和加工基地,具有重要的地位。但是由于黑龙江省马铃薯生产企业在发展过程中存在种薯繁育体系和质量检测不健全,马铃薯基地建设与加工业发展链条不紧,加工增值环节薄弱,加工产品单一等问题,导致马铃薯产业发展缓慢。因此,如何解决以上的问题成为提高全省马铃薯企业的竞争力和推动马铃薯产业发展的关键途径。     

Karl Pribram,the James Arthur Lectures,and What Makes Us Human

Background

The annual James Arthur lecture series on the Evolution of the Human Brain was inaugurated at the American Museum of Natural History in 1932, through a bequest from a successful manufacturer with a particular interest in mechanisms. Karl Pribram's thirty-ninth lecture of the series, delivered in 1970, was a seminal event that heralded much of the research agenda, since pursued by representatives of diverse disciplines, that touches on the evolution of human uniqueness.

Discussion

In his James Arthur lecture Pribram raised questions about the coding of information in the brain and about the complex association between language, symbol, and the unique human cognitive system. These questions are as pertinent today as in 1970. The emergence of modern human symbolic cognition is often viewed as a gradual, incremental process, governed by inexorable natural selection and propelled by the apparent advantages of increasing intelligence. However, there are numerous theoretical considerations that render such a scenario implausible, and an examination of the pattern of acquisition of behavioral and anatomical novelties in human evolution indicates that, throughout, major change was both sporadic and rare. What is more, modern bony anatomy and brain size were apparently both achieved well before we have any evidence for symbolic behavior patterns. This suggests that the biological substrate underlying the symbolic thought that is so distinctive of Homo sapiens today was exaptively achieved, long before its potential was actually put to use. In which case we need to look for the agent, perforce a cultural one, that stimulated the adoption of symbolic thought patterns. That stimulus may well have been the spontaneous invention of articulate language.

     

What makes us human? A biased view from the perspective of comparative embryology and mouse genetics

For a neurobiologist, the core of human nature is the human cerebral cortex, especially the prefrontal areas, and the question "what makes us human?" translates into studies of the development and evolution of the human cerebral cortex, a clear oversimplification. In this comment, after pointing out this oversimplification, I would like to show that it is impossible to understand our cerebral cortex if we focus too narrowly on it. Like other organs, our cortex evolved from that in stem amniotes, and it still bears marks of that ancestry. More comparative studies of brain development are clearly needed if we want to understand our brain in its historical context. Similarly, comparative genomics is a superb tool to help us understand evolution, but again, studies should not be limited to mammals or to comparisons between human and chimpanzee, and more resources should be invested in investigation of many vertebrate phyla. Finally, the most widely used rodent models for studies of cortical development are of obvious interest but they cannot be considered models of a "stem cortex" from which the human type evolved. It remains of paramount importance to study cortical development directly in other species, particularly in primate models, and, whenever ethically justifiable, in human.     

Just grazing the surface: A tribute to Professor John Hodgson 1937–2018

John Hodgson (1937–2018) is renowned worldwide as a passionate and principled researcher, dedicated to the study of interactions between grazing livestock and pasture sward, and to whole‐system management of grassland. He published over 250 scientific outputs during his 50‐year career, and inspired generations of grazing ecologists. Following his upbringing on a mixed‐livestock farm in the Yorkshire Dales, John received BSc, PhD and DSc from the University of Leeds, UK. He worked in research institutes in Hurley, England and Penicuik, Scotland, before taking a Chair in Agronomy at Massey University, New Zealand in 1986. There, he progressed to become Head of School for the Environment. John retired from university life in 2002, but never left academia. John's global research legacy is reflected in the international authorship of this memorial review. His international impact is demonstrated by the supervision of over 50 PhD students from all over the world, and by his knowledge‐sharing travels to South America and China. His peers will remember him as a thoughtful and collaborative scholar. His students will remember him as an inspiring and caring mentor. He helped to revolutionize the way that grasslands are managed, in the face of global environmental change and increasing demand on grazed systems. John lost a long battle with Parkinson's disease in October 2018 and is survived by his wife, Ruth, and five children. His own research was often dedicated to his father, Dick Hodgson, and the first author of this tribute wishes to do the same.     

转变经济发展方式，做大做强湛江农垦经济总量

为进一步转变湛江农垦经济发展方式,优化垦区产业结构,本文在深入调研的基础上,全面分析认为垦区经济社会发展仍处于可以大有作为的重要战略机遇期。提出要全面把握机遇,沉着应对挑战,进一步优化产业结构,整合优势资源,创新第三产业经营模式,务实推进,抓好落实,实现做大经济总量、提升经济效益的目标。     

云南省天然橡胶产业可持续经营研究

云南的地理位置及气候条件非常适合天然橡胶的种植和生长,因此云南橡胶产业具有重要战略地位。但是,云南省橡胶产业在发展的同时,还存在一些问题,不利于产业的长久发展。因此,研究云南省橡胶产业的可持续经营显得很有必要。通过论述云南省橡胶产业的发展现状,以及存在问题,探讨如何促进云南省橡胶产业的可持续经营和发展。     

The David Rosen lecture: biological control in citrus

David Rosen was a scientist, professor, administrator, philosopher, organizer, family man, and friend to many. He made numerous and remarkable contributions to biological control in citrus. Much of his research was on the biosystematics of Aphytis parasitoids, but he also held strong convictions about the importance of biological control in citrus integrated pest management (IPM), and carried out research on genetic improvement of parasitoids. David was the first incumbent of the Vigevani Chair of Agriculture and Professor of Entomology at the Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences at the Rehovot campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. David served as an organizer of the XIV International Plant Protection Congress in Jerusalem, Israel, and his imprint on the congress was evident despite his absence. In addition to reviewing David's scientific contributions, I present an overview of the challenges facing biological control in the USA, including many that concerned David: increased scrutiny from regulatory agencies regarding the effects of natural enemies on nontarget species, loss of taxonomic experts, concerns about the accidental introduction of plant pathogens with the importation of natural enemies of insect vectors, and challenges to the tradition of international cooperation. If the increased demand for biological control is to be met in 21st century agricultural IPM programs, several scientific, social, and legal issues must be resolved.     

Chenopodium quinoa—An Indian perspective

Chenopodium quinoa Willd. is a pseudocereal that has been cultivated in the Andean region for thousands of years. It is an annual broad-leaved plant, 1–2 m tall with deep penetrating roots and can be cultivated from sea level upto an altitude of 3800 m. The plant shows tolerance to frost, salinity and drought, and has the ability to grow on marginal soils. Quinoa grain is highly nutritious due to its outstanding protein quality and wide range of minerals and vitamins. The grain protein is rich in amino acids like lysine and methionine that are deficient in cereals. The grain is used to make flour, soup, breakfast, cereal and alcohol, while the flour is utilized in making biscuits, bread and processed food. Quinoa starch having small grains and high viscosity, can be exploited for various industrial applications. The crop is self-pollinated with low outcrossing rates. Emasculation and hybridization are cumbersome due to small size of the flowers, but male sterility in some cultivars and gynomonoecious breeding system may help breeding research in this crop. Quinoa's ability to produce high-protein grains under ecologically extreme conditions makes it important for the diversification of future agricultural systems, especially in high-altitude area of the Himalayas and North Indian Plains.     

大豆基胶黏剂改性的研究进展

大豆蛋白的凝胶性能够使大豆分离蛋白具有较高的粘度、可塑性和弹性,由大豆分离蛋白形成的胶黏剂不会释放甲醛等有害气体,是高环保型胶黏剂.但是普通大豆胶黏剂耐水性差、胶合强度低,而且耐腐蚀性差、易于生物降解,所以需要进行改性处理以期提高耐水性以及胶合强度.常用改性方法包括:物理改性、化学改性、仿生改性、酶改性等,通过对大豆蛋白改性处理方法的归纳,介绍了大豆胶的最新研究动态,以及国内外大豆胶改性的先进技术,从而总结出适宜的改性方法,为实际的生产与应用提供依据.     

Metals and micronutrients – food safety issues

Of all the elements, the most important to consider in terms of food-chain contamination are arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and selenium (Se). Where soils are enriched in these elements, it is usually through the agricultural, industrial or urban activities of man, except for Se where high concentrations in soil are often derived from high-Se parent rock materials. The propensity for plants to accumulate and translocate these contaminants to edible and harvested parts depends largely on soil and climatic factors, plant genotype and agronomic management. Elevated As intake, especially of inorganic As, is most likely to arise from high-As drinking water than from ingestion of food. Cadmium and Se are of the greatest concern in terms of terrestrial food-chain contamination, with the former element receiving most attention. Worldwide, the probability of insufficient Se in the human diet exceeds that of toxicity, with deficiency usually associated with monotonous vegetarian diets in areas with Se-deficient soils. Excessive human intake of Cd is of concern as this element accumulates over a lifetime in the body, with impairment of kidney function being the main adverse effect. Cadmium inputs to soil in fertilizer, biosolids, soil amendments and atmospheric deposition often exceed outputs in crops and drainage waters, so that Cd concentrations in many agricultural soils are slowly increasing. However, evidence for increases in Cd concentrations in crops over time is contentious, as is the evidence for human health problems due to low-level Cd contamination of the food chain. Adverse health effects due to Cd intake have been manifest only in situations of gross soil contamination, with a predominantly rice-based diet, where soil–plant and plant–human transfer of Cd would have been enhanced. Human feeding studies have indicated that food Cd bioavailability is dependent on Fe nutrition, and animal studies have indicated that Zn, Ca, P and other elements and food constituents (e.g. fiber, phytate) affect Cd bioavailability. While plant breeding and agronomic management can minimize soil–plant transfer of Cd, and maximize concentrations of antagonists to Cd assimilation in humans, it remains important that inputs of this metal to soil be minimized.     

增强系统管控 规避家庭农场挂帐现象

家庭农场是提高农业生产组织化程度的重要组织形式。生产经营中存在的家庭农场挂帐问题,是农场发展的一大隐患。在调研湛江农垦华海公司家庭农场挂帐问题的基础上,分析导致家庭农场挂帐的原因,提出确立“职工为本”指导思想、完善企业经营管理、优化作物与用地结构、实施标准化作业等规避家庭农场挂帐的建议和措施。     

论茶叶品牌个性的塑造

本文从品牌及品牌个性的基本含义出发,通过对茶叶企业品牌建设的某些实证研究,从茶叶品牌个性化的定位、产品、包装、服务、传播、促销等方面,探讨了茶叶品牌个性的塑造。     

刍议梅尧臣的茶人情怀及对当代茶道思想的启示

北宋诗人梅尧臣爱茶，引茶入诗入文，更有如茶般不媚于世，不阿于俗的品性。茶道即人道，茶品与人品总是紧密地联系在一起。茶在文人心中，是醇清高洁之物，促人修心养性；有高尚情操和宽厚情怀的诗人亦如茶，值得后人敬重与爱戴。     

Profiling and geographical distribution of seed oil content of sunflower in Ukraine

The sunflower has the potential to be a highly competitive crop owing to its diversity market and the valuable oil it produces. Nevertheless, the amount of sunflower seed oil – a key factor for the crushing industry – is affected by genotype and environment, which sometimes is difficult to predict. The paper analyzes the theoretical principles of sunflower growth in Ukraine, highlights the current trends in the sowing of this crop, the influence of climatic factors of the environment on the pros...     

云南保山旅游发展问题探讨

作为西南边疆旅游地，云南保山的旅游资源有着鲜明的自然景观特色和人文优势。利用和开发这些旅游资源，将富集的资源优势转化为产业优势，经济优势，必须突出重点，示范带动，抓住机遇，开拓创新，对整体旅游发展进行正确的规划和布局，才能迎来地方旅游产业新一轮的大发展。