Terrestrial movements and habitat use of gopher frogs in longleaf pine forests: A comparative study of juveniles and adults

Many animals exhibit changes in patterns of movement and habitat use as they age, and understanding such ontogenetic shifts is important for ensuring that habitat management is appropriate for all life stages. We used radiotelemetry to study movements and habitat use of juvenile and adult gopher frogs (Rana capito) as they migrated from the same ponds following metamorphosis or breeding. To supplement radiotelemetry data, we also captured adult gopher frogs at drift fences as they left ponds for the terrestrial environment. We directly compared patterns of movement, directional orientation, macrohabitat use (forest type), and microhabitat use (refugia) between the two life stages. Both juveniles and adults moved considerable distances from breeding ponds (up to 691 m) and selected fire-maintained longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forest over fire-suppressed forest. However, fire-suppressed habitat appeared to be a greater barrier to juveniles than adults. Additionally, we found differences in microhabitat use; both juveniles and adults used underground refuges (e.g., burrows and stump holes) for shelter, but juveniles used such refuges less often than adults. Juveniles also took more time than adults to locate their first refuge after exiting ponds. These differences may reflect the juveniles’ lack of experience in terrestrial habitats. Unlike juveniles, adults are likely more familiar with the locations of specific habitat features (e.g., burrows and ponds) and may take the shortest routes when moving among them, even if it requires moving through fire-suppressed habitat. Previous research has recommended that terrestrial habitats surrounding breeding ponds should be managed with frequent prescribed fire (i.e., 1–3-year intervals) in order to maintain suitable terrestrial habitat for juvenile gopher frogs, and our study suggests that these management practices are also likely beneficial to adults.     

Heterogeneity in formation of lignin—XI: An autoradiographic study of the heterogeneous formation and structure of pine lignin

Summary Selective labeling of p-hydroxyphenyl-, guaiacyl-and syringylpropane moieties in protolignin was achieved by administration of corresponding ³H-labeled monolignol glucosides to differentiating xylem of pine. The growing process of the protolignin macromolecule in the specific morphological region was visualized by application of high resolution microautoradiography to the selectively labeled wood tissue.p-Hydroxyphenyl lignin is formed mainly in the compound middle lamella and cell corner in an early stage of cell wall differentiation. There are two peaks of deposition of guaiacyl lignin in the compound middle lamella at an early stage and in the secondary wall at a late stage. The content of condensed guaiacyl units is higher in the middle lamella than in the secondary wall lignin. Syringyl lignin is formed mainly in the inner layer of the secondary wall in a late stage as a minor structural moiety. During the formation of the cell wall, protolignin grows under definite biological regulations to a heterogeneous macromolecule which consists of various structural moieties arranged in a regular manner. The origin of the heterogeneous structure was explained as a result of the biogenesis of protolignin in the cell wall.     

Impact of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, on gross calorific value and chemical composition of Pinus pinaster woody biomass

The pinewood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causal agent of the pine wilt disease, has been detected in several regions of Portugal affecting Pinus pinaster, a coniferous species of a great economic value. The nematodes, migrating through resin canals and feeding on parenchyma cells, induce rapid metabolic changes in ray parenchyma cells, cavitation areas, and denaturation and necrosis of parenchyma and cambial cells. To understand how anatomic changes and biochemical incidences of tree defense reactions affect the technological parameters of the wood, the gross calorific value (GCV) and chemical composition of PWN-infected and -uninfected P. pinaster wood were evaluated. The GCV was determined using Parr 6300 Automatic Isoperibol Calorimeter, and chemical composition analysis was performed by determining the contents of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and Ash on complete and instant oxidation of samples by “flash” combustion. The Student’s t test with Welch correction was used for statistical data analysis. The difference between the GCV and chemical composition for PWN-infected and -uninfected P. pinaster wood was statistically significant for the GCV and for hydrogen and nitrogen contents. The carbon, oxygen, sulfur and Ash contents did not differ statistically. The GCV of PWN-infected wood varied between the highest value of hardwood and the lowest value of softwood. This interdisciplinary study stresses the important technological and economic aspects, namely the impact of PWN on wood properties and the suitability of infected P. pinaster wood for use in the wood-processing and energy industries.     

Source,distribution and abundance of macroarthropods on the bark of longleaf pine: potential prey of the red-cockaded woodpecker

Arthropod diversity, abundance and biomass on 50–70-year-old longleaf pine (Pinus plalustris) tree boles were examined to determine the origin of the prey available to the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) and the variability of this prey over time. Traps designed to capture arthropods crawling on the bark (crawl traps), alighting on the bark (flight traps), and crawling on the ground (pitfall traps) were operated continuously for 12 months. Flight and crawl traps were placed at different heights. One-half of the trees with crawl traps were fitted with a barrier to prevent arthropods from crawling up from the ground. Arthropods were identified to genus from one weekly sample per month and subsamples were oven-dried and weighed to estimate biomass. The arthropod community on the bark included over 400 genera. Crawl trap captures were the most similar to the prey of P. borealis. Arthropod fauna captured in crawl traps had a 58% similarity to pitfall trap captures and a 60% similarity with flight trap captures. Flight and pitfall trap captures had a 10% similarity. Barriers to arthropod movement up the tree reduced the arthropod biomass on the bole of the trees by 40–70%. Arthropod biomass was relatively evenly distributed over the tree, but varied seasonally with the highest biomass captured in the fall of the year. In general, the study showed that little of the arthropod biomass on the bark is in the form of arthropods that live exclusively in that habitat and that a large portion of the biomass is crawling up from the soil/litter layer.     

The role of herbicide in savanna restoration: Effects of shrub reduction treatments on the understory and overstory of a longleaf pine flatwoods

Woody plant encroachment is a threat to savanna ecosystems worldwide. By exploiting differences in the physiology and seasonality of herbaceous species and encroaching hardwoods, herbicides can be used to control woody shrubs in savannas without causing lasting harm to desirable vegetation. We applied three herbicides and one tank mix to control shrubs following removal of the slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) canopy and replanting with container-grown longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) seedlings in a mesic-wet savanna in the southeastern USA. The herbicides tested were imazapyr, sulfometuron methyl, hexazinone, and a hexazinone + sulfometuron methyl tank mix. 4 years after application, no negative effects on understory species richness, diversity, evenness, or community composition were evident in any of the herbicide treatments. Oaks (Quercus spp.), one of the dominant shrub genera on the study site, were resistant to sulfometuron methyl, and this herbicide was therefore ineffective both as a pine release treatment and for enhancing herbaceous species cover. Imazapyr was the most effective treatment overall, leading to significant improvements in longleaf pine seedling growth and also enhancing herbaceous species cover. Both hexazinone and the hexazinone + sulfometuron methyl tank mix provided some seedling growth and understory enhancement as well. In particular, the tank mix significantly increased wiregrass cover relative to the control. Shrubs resprouted quickly following a dormant-season prescribed fire in the fifth year after treatment, indicating that herbicide-related increases in herbaceous cover may be lost if an aggressive prescribed fire program is not implemented.     

Modeling silviculture after natural disturbance to sustain biodiversity in the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystem: balancing complexity and implementation

Modeling silviculture after natural disturbance to maintain biodiversity is a popular concept, yet its application remains elusive. We discuss difficulties inherent to this idea, and suggest approaches to facilitate implementation, using longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) as an example. Natural disturbance regimes are spatially and temporally variable. Variability leads to a range of structural outcomes, or results in different pathways leading to similar structures. In longleaf pine, lightning, hurricanes, surface fires, and windthrow all lead to similar structures, but at different rates. Consequently, a manager can select among various natural disturbance patterns when searching for an appropriate silvicultural model. This facilitates management by providing flexibility to meet a range of objectives. The outcomes of natural disturbances are inherently different from those of silviculture, for example, harvesting always removes boles. It is instructive to think of silvicultural disturbances along a gradient in structural outcomes, reflecting degree of disparity with natural disturbance. In longleaf pine this might involve managing for two-cohort structure, instead of multi-cohort structure characteristic of old growth stands. While two-cohort structure is a simplification over the old growth condition, it is an improvement over single-cohort management. Reducing structural disparity between managed and unmanaged forests is key to sustaining biodiversity because of linkages that exist between structural elements, forest biota, and ecosystem processes. Finally, interactions of frequency, severity, intensity, seasonality, and spatial pattern define a disturbance regime. These components may not have equal weight in affecting biodiversity. Some are easier to emulate with silviculture than are others. For instance, ecologists consider growing-season fire more reflective of the natural fire regime in longleaf pine and critical for maintenance of biodiversity. However, dormant season fire is easier to use and recent work with native plants suggests that seasonality of fire may be less critical to maintenance of species richness, as one component of biodiversity, than is generally believed. Science can advance the goal of modeling silviculture after natural disturbances by better illustrating cause and effect relationships among components of disturbance regimes and the structure and function of ecosystems. Wide application requires approaches that are adaptable to different operational situations and landowner objectives. A key point for managers to remember is that strict adherence to a silvicultural regime that closely parallels a natural disturbance regime may not always be necessary to maintain biodiversity. We outline examples of silvicultural systems for longleaf pine that demonstrates these ideas.     

Discrimination of raw and vinegar-processed Genkwa Flos using metabolomics coupled with multivariate data analysis: A discrimination study with metabolomics coupled with PCA

In this paper, a novel approach using UPLC–MS (Ultra performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry) coupled with multivariate statistic analysis was established for the profiling and discrimination of raw and processed herb using Genkwa Flos as a model herb. A batch of raw and processed samples was analyzed, and the datasets of t_R–m/z pairs, ion intensities and sample codes were subjected to the principal component analysis (PCA). Raw and processed herb showed a clear classification of the two groups on the score plot. Loading plot was performed, and the chemical markers having great contributions to the differentiation were screened out. The identities of the chemical markers were identified by comparing the mass spectra and retention times with those of reference compounds and/or tentatively assigned by matching empirical molecular formulae and mass fragments with those of the known compounds published in the literatures. Based on the proposed strategy, yuanhuacine, genkwadaphnin, genkwanin-5-O-β-d-primeveroside, genkwanine N, genkwanin, 3′-hydroxy-genkwanin and apigenin were explored as representative markers in distinguishing the raw from the processed herbs. The method has been successfully applied in the distinguishing raw from processed herbs. Furthermore, the underlying detoxification mechanism of traditional processing procedure on the herb was predicted, and was related to the changes in the metabolic profiling. This research could be valuable to explore the chemical markers, investigate the mechanism underlying the processing procedure, and promote the quality control and safety application of traditional Chinese herbs.     

Estimation of the environmental value of recycled wood wastes: A conjoint analysis study

The purpose of this paper is to estimate the environmental value of recycled wood wastes using conjoint analysis. Conjoint analysis is one of many multi-attribute preference-elicitation techniques widely used in market research. A comparison of the pair-wise rating method and the choice experiment elicitation method is made. An empirical study estimates the value of recycled water cleaners using pair-wise rating and choice experiments. Water cleaners have many attributes, including their cleaning performance, replacement time, size, color, and price. Existing water-cleaning filters use propylene or polyethylene, which are made from petroleum resources. These filters become waste after being replaced. Another type of water-cleaning filter is being developed, known as a “recycled filter,” which is made from construction industry wood wastes and logs from thinning. This recycled filter can subsequently be dissolved by bacteria. An empirical study of recycled water-cleaning filters made from wood wastes shows that recycling has significant value as estimated by both pair-wise rating and choice experiments. However, the estimated marginal willingness to pay for recycling differs between the two methods. It may be that profile design effects appear in our survey.     

松材线虫病发生林地松树枯死规律研究

对马尾松-黑松混交林松材线虫病疫木构成及特点进行了研究,结果表明:黑松死亡率高于马尾松,两者比例为1:0.39;7月15日至8月15日是死亡高峰期,早期:中期:近期=1:0.22:0.10;枯死树径阶构成与林相自然径阶一致,平均为17.5cm;枯死木的质量明显低于健康木,健康木重量:胸径=7.857kg/cm,而枯死木重量:胸径=2.647kg/cm,后者只及前者的33.7%。     

马尾松,麻栎,江南桤木用聚乙二醇改性的研究

本文研究了马尾松、麻栎、江南桤木三种木材用聚乙二醇（ＰＥＧ）改性的工艺条件及效果。结果表明，三种改性材经过长时间自然存放，抗收缩率可这８０％以上，并且其耐腐性能提高，尺寸稳定性好。     

金华市婺城区火炬松与湿地松生长优劣初探

通过对婺城区引种火炬松(PynustaedL.)与湿地松(P.elliottii Engelm.)2个树种生长情况调查测定,对火炬松与湿地松在生长情况、抗病虫害和抗雪灾情况进行差异性分析,提出优先发展火炬松的建议。     

干旱胁迫对马尾松苗木脯氨酸及游离氨基酸含量的影响

[目的]证实脯氨酸及游离氨基酸在马尾松苗木抵御干旱胁迫中积累并发挥作用,揭示其在不同胁迫时期含量的变化规律。[方法]选择5个种源马尾松苗木,设计3种水分梯度,开展为期54d干旱胁迫试验,分别于胁迫处理18d、36d和54d后测定苗木针叶内脯氨酸及游离氨基酸含量。[结果](1)脯氨酸及游离氨基酸含量在干旱胁迫18d后均无明显变化规律,但脯氨酸含量在干旱胁迫54d后、游离氨基酸含量在干旱胁迫36d后均呈随胁迫程度加深而上升的变化。(2)随胁迫时间的延长,脯氨酸的平均含量呈先降后升趋势,而游离氨基酸的平均含量呈先升后降趋势。(3)脯氨酸和游离氨基酸含量在不同种源苗木内的分布差异显著。在5个种源中,脯氨酸平均含量以浙江江山和湖南汝城种源排最高和最低,分别为91.33μg/g(DW)和69.16μg/g(DW);游离氨基酸平均含量以广东信宜和湖北大悟种源排最高和最低,分别为1 597.88μg/g(DW)和1 279.04μg/g(DW)。[结论]干旱胁迫下,脯氨酸及游离氨基酸均能在苗木体内合成,使苗木适应干旱环境而继续生长。     

湿地松在江苏地理变异及优良种源的研究

在江苏3个试验点连续9年(1981～1989)对美国39个湿地松种源(包括2个不同树种)研究表明:不同种原、树种间生长、形态性状变异显著.但变异与种源产地地理、气候因子相关不显著而与造林地的土壤条件密切相关.变异主要来源于林分和单株.7年生时优良种源高、径生长量遗传增益为19.14～85.38%.初选优良种源4个(S_(14)、S_(11)、S_(17)、S_1).分布于佛罗里达州北部、德克萨斯州东部和北卡州南部.     

Stored water use and transpiration in Scots pine: a modeling analysis with ANAFORE

We estimated daily use of stored water by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees growing in a temperate climate with the ANAFORE model (ANAlysis of FORest Ecosystems) and compared the simulation results with sap flow measurements. The original model was expanded with a dynamic water flow and storage model that simulates sap flow dynamics in an individual tree. ANAFORE was able to accurately simulate diurnal patterns of measured sap flow under microclimatic conditions that differ from those of the calibration period. Strong relationships were found between stored water use and several tree characteristics (diameter at breast height, sapwood area, leaf area), but not with tree height. Relative to transpiration, stored water use varied over time (between < 1% and 44% of daily transpiration). On days when transpiration was high, trees were more dependent on stored water, indicating that the contribution of internal water to transpiration is not a constant in the water budget of trees.     

Small-angle X-ray scattering study on nanostructural changes with water content in red pine,American pine,and white ash

Wood is a highly sophisticated and multihierarchical material. The nanoscale structures in natural cell walls of red pine, American pine, and white ash specimens were investigated using the small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) technique. A tangent-by-tangent method was used to analyze the SAXS data. The results demonstrate that the multihierarchical scatterers in the three specimens can be divided into two dominant components, i.e., a sharp component and a wide component. The sharp component mainly corresponds to the contribution of cellulose microfibrils, and its size is almost unaffected by the water content. However, the wide component includes voids or microcracks and cellulose microfibril aggregates; its size changes, reflecting swelling and water accumulation in the voids or microcracks. Because of the different morphological features of the cell walls, softwood (red pine and American pine) displays different tendencies from hardwood (white ash) in terms of changes in the wide component with water content: the average scatterer size of the wide component has an incremental tendency with the water content in softwood, but it has a descending tendency in hardwood. Fractal analysis further revealed that in white ash the surface of scatterers is coarser and the scatterers form more compact nanostructures than in the two pine woods. All this nanostructural information can be used to explain well the difference of swelling behaviors between the two pines and the white ash.     

A kinetic study of the acetylation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin components in wood

The rates of acetylation of Deal, Larch, Southern Yellow Pine and Sitka Spruce using acetic anhydride in xylene have been measured and compared with the composition of the woods. Although these woods have similar macroscopic characteristics, the correlation between rate of acetylation and composition remains unclear, although the holocellulose may play a role in converting the hydrophilic hydroxyl groups to hydrophobic acetyl groups. The rate of acetylation of Larch at 373 K was insignificant but the other wood samples showed significant acetylation at this temperature. The activation energies for the acetylation process suggest that several routes may be involved.     

A study on the relation between soil and needle content of nutrient elements in the Korean pine plantation

Through the content analysis of nutrient elements in the soil and in the needle at the different site classes and periods of growth ofP. koraiensis, and in a single growing season, some conclusions can be drawn below: Most of the soil nutrient elements were higher at the good sites than at the poor ones in an annual average concentration of them, i.e., site class 1 > site class 2> site class 3. And forP. koraiensis tree at every site class, the nutrient elements in their needles did the same. However, each of the elements in the soil or in the need was seldom at the same level of concentration on the good or on the poor site during different periods of growth. There are no an inevitable relationship between the contents of the soil nutrient elements and the needle’s. And whether these elements are high or low within a tree body may depend on the physiogical requirement of the tree, but not on their contents in the environment. Some nutrient elements required forP. koraiensis varied with growth periods during a whole growing season. N, P and K, for example, were greatly needed only at the fast growth period, while Ca at the initial growth period; and on the contrary, Ca was needed less at the fast growth period. In intensive forest management, therefore, fertilizers with N, P and K should much be applied at the fast growth period, while fertilizer with Ca at the initial growth period to meet requirements of growth ofP. koraiensis trees.     

贵州马尾松人工林直径分布动脉转移模型研究

以15块经营密度试样地资料为基础，用转移概率矩阵方法建立马尾松人工林直径分布动脉转移模型。模型在间伐试验林的高、中、低密度林分中的应用结果表明，林分总断面积的预测精度依次为97％，98％，98％。同时表明，比例法的应用精度普遍高于公式法。     

Relation between growth stress and lignin concentration in the cell wall: Ultraviolet microscopic spectral analysis

Lignin content in the cell wall was investigated to examine its relation with growth stress, using an ultraviolet microscopic spectrum analyzer. Although a weak correlation existed between the growth stress and lignin concentration in the compound middle lamella, it was believed that the compound middle lamella did not contribute to compressive growth stress generation as there was no correlation between growth stress and lignin concentration in the cell corner part of the intercellular layer. In the secondary wall, larger compressive growth stress was associated with higher lignin concentration especially in the outer part. This finding confirms that lignin contributes positively to the generation of compressive longitudinal growth stresses in the compression wood and more substantially in the outer part of the secondary wall. This experimental result strongly supports our hypothesis of growth stress generation given by the model.This paper was presented at the International Academy of Wood Science Meeting at Vancouver, Canada, July 1997     

Mycological studies on the wood-borerstromatium fulvum vill. (Col., cerambycidae) infestingcasuarina glauca (casuarinaceae) III. Effect of inoculation with the fungal isolates on lignin and extractive content of wood

Wood specimens of Casuarina glauca were inoculated withChaetomium spp. andTrichoderma spp., alone or in combination in the presence or abscence of larvae ofStromatium fulvum. All fungal inoculates caused deterioration to the lignin of the wood specimens. The infestation with larvae alone caused the same. The extractive content decreased to a little extent.

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Zusammenfassung Bäume von Casuarina glauca wurden mitChaetomium spp. undTrichoderma spp. inokuliert, allein oder in Kombination sowie in Abwesenheit oder Gegenwart der Larven vonStromatium fulvum. Alle Pilz-Inokulate verusachten einen Abbau von Lignin in den Bäumen. Denselben Effekt hatte die Tätigkeit vonStromatium-Larven ohne Pilz-Inokulation. Der extraktive Anteil verminderte sich nur wenig.

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