The Fate of Cryptosporidium Parvum Oocysts in Reclaimed Water Irrigation-history and Non-history Soils Irrigated with Various Effluent Qualities

The present study aimed to look at the fate of protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts applied through surface drip irrigation on reclaimed water irrigation-history and non-history sandy-loam (Hamra) soil columns. A new and simple isolation method for recovery of oocysts from soil samples was developed and used along this study. The new soil isolation method of oocysts is based on the “two phase separation method” formerly used to recover Clostridium perfringens spores from sediments and soil samples with minor modifications. The range recovery achieved by this method was 64–95% (mean 61.2?±?17.4). The objectives of the second part of this study were to investigate several physical and chemical factors governing transport and survival of C. parvum oocysts in sandy-loam soil columns by breakthrough curves. Comparison of fresh water and reclaimed water irrigation revealed that reclaimed water irrigated-history soil was more hydrophobic allowing water flow through channels with poor oocysts retention and fast flow. Examination of the organic matter effect (originating from reclaimed water irrigation) on oocysts breakthrough revealed that their soil infiltration increased. Calculations of oocysts concentration at different columns depths showed that most of the oocysts were retained in the first 5 cm of soil column. In the present study, comparing the two soil types (history and non-history of effluents irrigation) beside the surface electrostatic charge, one of the main elements found to affect oocysts infiltration and transport in soil columns was soil hydrophobicity caused by soluble organic matter originating from reclaimed water irrigation. Therefore, prior to application in soil irrigation, reclaimed water should be treated to high quality (i.e. membrane technology as the best option) to prevent enhanced transport of various pathogens through those irrigated soils.     

低盐再生水灌溉对亚热带红壤水力特性及微观结构的影响

低盐再生水是一种回用潜力巨大的替代性水源,为探究其灌溉亚热带红壤的适宜性,该研究以校园生活污水为再生水水源,设置再生水单一灌溉（WW）、再生水与蒸馏水交替灌溉（AWW）两种灌水模式,并以蒸馏水单一灌溉（CK）为对照。通过室外模拟土柱试验,研究了低盐再生水不同灌溉模式下红壤的盐碱度、微观结构及水力特性,并探讨了三者之间的相互作用关系。结果表明：1）低盐再生水灌溉降低了红壤的持水能力和导水能力;2）与CK处理相比,低盐再生水灌溉导致红壤田间持水率和凋萎系数降低,有效水在WW处理下增加6.33%,在AWW处理下减小27.85%;3） 两种低盐再生水灌溉模式下土壤大孔隙均增加,而有效孔隙、微小孔隙在WW处理下分别增加1.3%、5.0%,在AWW处理下分别减小4.3%、1.1%;4）与CK处理相比,低盐再生水灌溉使红壤电导率（Electrical Conductivity,EC）和Na+含量显著提高,而交换性阳离子总量（Cation Exchange Capacity,CEC）显著降低（P<0.05）。再生水两种灌溉模式中,AWW处理下土壤交换性钠百分比（Exchangeable Sodium Percentage,ESP）和钠吸附比（Sodium Adsorption Ratio,SAR）分别显著高于WW处理142.4%、120.3%（P<0.05）,从而引起更强烈的土壤黏粒分散;5）田间持水率、凋萎系数、有效水及有效孔隙和微小孔隙比例均与交换性Na+、ESP、SAR呈显著负相关,与CEC呈显著正相关。综上,低盐再生水灌溉亚热带红壤宜选择单一灌溉模式,且应定期监测土壤SAR和ESP等指标。研究结果可为再生水水质标准和灌溉制度制定提供参考。     

Water Extractability of Trace Metals from Soils: Some Pitfalls

Water soluble and/or dissolved metals represent the most ecotoxicologically relevant fraction of metals in the environment. However, water extractions may be prone to errors. This study aims to evaluate the performance of 5 filters as well as Rhizon soil moisture samplers, with respect to metal adsorption and/or release by the filter. In addition, the effect of equilibration time on water extractions of different types of soils was evaluated (silty loam, silty clay loam, loamy sand). Filtrations of synthetic solutions containing 40 μg 1^?1 Zn, 20 μg 1^?1 Cu, Ni and Pb, 10 μg 1^?1 Cr and 2 μg 1^?1 Cd were conducted using the different filters. The synthetic solutions either contained (i) no other competitive cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Mn, Al) (A ₁), (ii) competitive cations at concentrations similar to those observed in soil solutions (A ₂), (iii) competitive cations at 10 times lower concentrations than those in the synthetic soil solution (A ₃). Whiteband filters were observed to retain considerable amounts of trace metals (except Cr), both in the presence and absence of other competitive cations. Millipore filters did not exhibit metal retention. Rhizon soil moisture samplers did not retain trace metals from the synthetic soil solution (A ₂), whereas at lower concentrations of competitive cations (A ₁, A ₃) retention of Cu and Pb was observed. Whiteband filters without a predefined pore diameter allowed colloidal material of unknown particle size to pass into the filtrate, making interpretation of results very difficult and comparison between studies using different filters impossible. Millipore filters with a predefined pore diameter are to be recommended for this purpose. However, particular attention must be paid to potential constitutive Zn release by the sintered glass filter holders, the effect of which can be reduced by rigorous acid washing prior to and following every use. Rhizon samplers were also considered to be useful tools with well-defined and sufficiently small pore diameters to withhold colloidal material. However, in the absence or at reduced concentrations of competitive cations (A ₁, A ₃) retention of trace metals by the Rhizons, particularly Cu and Pb, was observed. Finally, short equilibration times may be insufficient for full assessment of the water extractable pool of trace metals in the soil.     

北京市东南郊再生水灌区地下水多环芳烃污染风险评估

为研究污染物随再生水进入地下环境后其迁移衰减情况及对地下水的潜在危害性,以Multi-cell模型为基础,结合污染物质量守恒、在水土中吸附再分配、生物降解等机理,针对地下水污染风险评估构建了计算污染物随水在土壤剖面的垂向迁移衰减一维模型,并以北京通州大兴再生水灌区为研究区域,以再生水中持久性有机污染物多环芳烃萘和菲为研究对象,根据当地钻孔资料及灌溉水水质、地下水水质资料,应用该模型进行试算。结果表明,经过多年连续灌溉后,通州大兴大部分地区进入潜水含水层的萘、菲浓度较低,整体污染风险较低,仅在通州区潞城镇等个别地区萘、菲浓度较高,应引起重视;由于大兴区整体包气带较厚,其污染风险低于通州区。土壤粘土层是萘、菲积累的主要层位,其吸附容量远大于细砂等粗颗粒介质,在土壤表层低环多环芳烃迁移性更强。应用这一模型,能够较为宏观地掌握通州大兴再生水灌区不同区域地下水中多环芳烃萘和菲的污染风险差异。     

On the value of soil columns for assessing the transport pattern of viruses through soils: A critical outlook

The U.S. Water Pollution Control Act Amendment of 1972 (PL 92-500) has made land disposal of wastewater effluents and residuals a viable and attractive alternative (Thabaraj, 1975; Wright, 1975). Land spreading of wastewater effluents and residuals has many advantages, inclding the addition of plant nutrients, water conservation, improvement of soil physical properties, and increased soil organic matter. Public health risks associated with land disposal of wastes containing human pathogens can be assessed only through a thorough examination of the survival and transport pattern of these pathogens through soils. This topic has been thoroughly covered in recent reviews (Bitton, 1975, 1979; Burge and March, 1978; Foster and Engelbrecht, 1973; Gerbaet al., 1975) and need not be examined any further. In this review, we are primarily concerned with a critical examination of the various methods frequently used to assess soils' potential to retain viruses. Knowledge concerning the transport pattern of viruses through soils can be gained through field monitoring of these infectious particles in wastewater effluents, sludges, soils and groundwater, and/or through soil column experiments. The latter have been criticized and our purpose is to examine these criticisms and suggest, if necessary, some alternate solutions. Furthermore, we will review the practical information gained through soil column studies and examine, with the aid of examples of land application sites across the country, the relationship between laboratory and field studies.     

北京市再生水利用潜力与配置方案研究

开展再生水利用潜力与配置研究将促进再生水的安全利用。再生水的科学配置应以区域水资源配置为基础，应当优先利用于农业，其次是工业和城市河湖。北京市再生水利用潜力为14.04亿m³，其中，中心城再生水利用潜力为8.44亿m³，郊区再生水灌溉利用潜力为5.6亿m³。提出北京市2010年再生水资源配置方案，市政用水、工业用水、河湖用水、农业灌溉再生水配置量分别为0.3234、1.6516、1.025亿、3亿m³，三级处理出水和二级处理出水利用量分别为1.09和4.91亿m³。     

Characterization and agricultural utilization of swine waste lagoon effluents

This investigation was conducted to determine the elemental composition of effluents from three anaerobic swine waste lagoons and one aerobic swine waste lagoon and to evaluate effects of effluent application on growth of corn (Zea mays L.) Wide variation occurred in the elemental composition of effluents among the four lagoons and among four sampling dates from each lagoon. Use of these effluents as irrigation water would lead to application of a wide range in amounts of nutrients to soil. Effluent application increased corn grain yield on a Woodstown loamy fine sand. This yield increase was attributed to alleviation of moisture stress and to correction of N deficiency.     

Yield and Heavy Metal Content of Wastewater-Irrigated Cauliflower and Soil Chemical Properties

A two-year field study was conducted to determine the effects on the growth, yield, heavy metal content, and water use of cauliflowers and on the soil chemical properties of irrigation with reclaimed urban wastewaters (filtered, aerated, diluted) by comparing with fresh water under semi-arid climate conditions. Cauliflower curd yield, water use efficiency, and heavy metal contents were found to be the highest in the filtered wastewater application. Cadmium (Cd) content was just over the critical level for human health. Filtered and aerated wastewater applications created higher soil salinity, organic matter, and total nitrogen (N), dipotassium oxide (K₂O), and phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅) contents. Copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) contents in the surface soil were also found to be significantly higher. Treated-wastewater irrigation could increase cauliflower yield and water productivity. However, higher heavy metal contaminations under these conditions may increase health risks. Therefore, the diluted wastewater application may be preferred, but it must be utilized while taking human health into account.     

Accumulation of carbon,nitrogen and phosphorus during soil formation on alder spoil heaps after brown-coal mining,near Sokolov (Czech Republic)

The accumulation of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and their vertical distribution in the soil profile in relation to site age were studied in a chronosequence of 19 sites on reclaimed spoil heaps from open-cast coal mining, near Sokolov (Czech Republic) and compared to a semi-natural alder forest in the vicinity of the mining area. The reclaimed sites were located on tertiary clay or quaternary gravel–sand spoil material and afforested with alder species (Alnus glutinosa, A. incana) 4–65 years ago.Rapid accumulation of C and N in the soil profile was registered within 15 years after reclamation. The rate of increase in C and N contents in the whole profile and the thickness of the litter and fermentation layers was slower in 25-year-old and older reclaimed sites. The soil of the semi-natural alder forest was richer in C and N in the 5–10-cm layer compared with 40-year-old (clays) and even with 65-year-old (gravel–sand) reclaimed soils. N accumulated more slowly in comparison with C, especially in deeper (5–10 cm) parts of the profile. Accumulation of organic C resulted in a decrease in substrate pH from alkaline, which was characteristic of young sites, to slightly acidic on older sites. The pH decreased gradually with increasing site age in all soil layers but increased with depth in the soil profile. In contrast to C and N, P content did not significantly change with site age in any layer of the soil profile. The highest amount of P was found in the fermentation layer, but there was no difference to the other layers. The soil profile of the semi-natural sites was richer in P in comparison to 40-year-old reclaimed ones.     

Numerical analysis of soil water dynamics in a soil column with an artificial capillary barrier growing leaf vegetables

An artificial capillary barrier (CB ), which consists of two layers of gravel and coarse sand, was used to improve the soil water retention capacity of the root zone of sandy soil for the cultivation of Japanese spinach (Brassica rapa var. perviridis ). The performance of a CB under specific conditions can be evaluated using numerical simulations. However, there have been relatively few numerical studies analyzing soil water dynamics in CB systems during crop growth. The objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate the performance of a CB during the cultivation of Japanese spinach irrigated at different rates and (ii) to investigate the effect of the irrigation schedule on root water uptake. Numerical analysis was performed using HYDRUS ‐1D after the soil hydraulic properties of the CB materials were determined. In most cases, the HYDRUS ‐1D results agreed well with the experimental soil water content data without any calibration when the dual‐porosity model describing soil hydraulic properties was used for gravel and coarse sand. We found that the dual‐porosity model was able to attenuate the unrealistically steep reduction in the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity predicted by the single‐porosity model. The numerical simulations also showed that the CB played an important role in maintaining plant‐available water in the root zone while maximizing the water use efficiency. The numerical simulations revealed that the irrigation frequency could be reduced by half during the early growth stage, and the water use efficiency could be greatly improved with the CB layer installed.     

再生水灌溉对土壤斥水性的影响

深入探求再生水灌溉条件下不同土壤中水分和溶质的分布及斥水性变化规律,能为再生水灌溉条件下土壤斥水性产生原因及其影响因素的研究提供一定的参考。选用砂土、砂姜黑土、塿土和盐碱土进行土柱再生水灌溉试验,取样测定不同灌水量条件下剖面土壤的潜在斥水性、含水率、Cl-、有机质(organicmatter,OM)含量及电导率(electrical conductivity,EC)等。结果表明:再生水灌溉后,塿土及盐碱土分别出现0～2,1～3级斥水性,砂土及砂姜黑土为0级斥水性,4种土表层表现出较强的斥水性。土壤斥水性随再生水灌水量和灌溉时间的增加而显著增强,并且灌水量越大,斥水性差异性越显著。4种土有机质含量OM与土壤斥水持续时间变化值TR呈正相关关系,Cl-含量、EC值与土壤斥水持续时间变化值TR呈负相关关系。相比较其他3种土而言,砂土更适合再生水灌溉。     

Treated municipal wastewater for citrus irrigation 1

Treated, reclaimed municipal wastewater was evaluated on citrus trees in central Florida for over six years. The effects of irrigation with reclaimed wastewater on soil water content, soil chemical analysis, leaf mineral status, and fruit quality were compared with those of irrigation with well water. Irrigation with reclaimed water increased mineral residues in the soil profile, altered leaf mineral concentration and fruit quality, and promoted better tree performance and more weed growth relative to irrigation with well water. Higher accumulation of nitrogen (N), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in soils irrigated with reclaimed water were not significantly reflected in leaf mineral status. Although leaf sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), and boron (B) concentrations were noticeably higher in reclaimed water treatments than in those of well water, they are still far below the toxicity levels. This highly treated wastewater in central Florida has been found to be a very safe and good option for increasing water supplies, but not a significant source of plant nutrients to citrus trees.     

Quantitative evaluation of the microbial nutrient sink in soil in relation to a model system for soil fungistasis

A quantitative approach was devised to evaluate the influence of soil microbial activity as a sink for nutrients exuded by fungal spores as a factor in soil fungistasis. The approach was based on measuring the CO₂ evolved from microbial respiration of ¹⁴C-labelled exudates from conidia of Cochliobolus victoriae incubated on soil. The amount of exudate lost by spores on soil was greater than the amount lost by spores incubated on a bed of sand undergoing leaching at a flow rate of 110 ml h^?1. where restriction of germination was similar to that on soil. Increasing flow rates in the leaching system increased spore exudation and reduced germination. Germination of C. victoriae conidia on membrane filters floated on distilled water decreased as the volume of water increased. The results indicate that the microbial nutrient sink of soil is sufficient to impose soil fungistasis.     

Secondary Effluent Treatment by Slow Sand Filters: Performance and Risk Analysis

The objective of this study is to examine the reuse of wastewaterfor beneficial purposes. To accomplish this objective, the efficiency of slow sand filters in removing total coliforms (TC) was studied using a probabilistic method. Three pilot scale slowsand filters were constructed at Alkhobar wastewater treatment plant, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The removal efficiency of filters was estimated under different operating control parameters, which included filtration rate (q), sand bed depth (d) and sand grain size (c). The Type III extreme value distribution best fitted theremoval efficiency data. A multiple linear regression analysis was performed to develop a relationship for mean removal efficiency as a function of control parameters. The predicted mean response and experimental results of previous studies werecompared to validate the empirical regression model. The controlparameters and influent concentrations of total coliform were used in Monte Carlo (MC) simulations for calculating the reliability index (β). The reliability index and corresponding risk were calculated for lognormally distributedsafety margins (SM). An effluent standard of 100 total coliform/100 mL was defined as capacity of the filter to ascertainthe risks of exceedence, which was approximately less than 50 for95% of the time. Pre and/or post disinfection would be necessaryto meet the stipulated effluent standards for unrestricted agriculture use.     

沙障对不同林龄雨养梭梭林冠下浅层土壤含水量的影响

[目的]分析不同林龄雨养梭梭林冠下浅层土壤含水量在布设沙障后的变化,为沙障生态功能的评价及梭梭生长发育状况的预测提供理论依据。[方法]对5年生幼年林和25年生中年林在布设沙障后冠下0—50cm的土壤含水量、表层结皮厚度、近地表风速等因子进行测定分析。[结果]沙障通过降低近地表气流流速,加速结皮形成等方式提高了梭梭冠下0—50cm的浅层土壤含水量。沙障对5年生梭梭冠下土壤含水量的空间分布格局影响不大,但使25年生梭梭冠下土壤含水量随着与主干距离的增加而单调增加,表现为"干岛效应"。在垂直分布上,25年生梭梭冠下土壤含水量在塑料网沙障区与对照区间呈显著相关(p0.05),而在麦草沙障区与对照区间相关性不显著,其最大土壤含水量的出现深度下降至30—40cm处。[结论]布设机械沙障对退化梭梭林的恢复将起到一定的促进作用,且对中年林梭梭土壤水分的影响大于对幼年林。     

利用离体umu/SOS测试与活体蚯蚓彗星试验评价再生水灌溉土壤的遗传毒性

污水和再生水灌溉在我国北方地区十分普遍,由于长期灌溉导致土壤中遗传毒性物质累积并因此而引发的生态安全问题值得研究。本研究利用离体umu/SOS测试与活体蚯蚓彗星试验评价北京市郊区再生水灌溉土壤中遗传毒性物质的积累。umu/SOS测试得到表征样品遗传毒性大小的β-半乳糖苷酶诱导活性（IU值）,以达到阳性时（诱导比率R=2）需要的土壤重量（G）来反映土壤样品的相对遗传毒性。活体蚯蚓彗星试验中,以尾矩（TM）表征土壤遗传毒性的大小。研究结果表明,再生水灌溉使得土壤的遗传毒性增大,随着再生水灌溉量的增加,土壤的G值减小,TM值增大,G值与TM值之间呈现明显相关关系,说明主要遗传毒性物质是有机污染物。离体umu/SOS测试和活体蚯蚓彗星试验的联合应用,可以快速有效地筛选出遗传毒性高风险土壤样品。     

Effect of Long-Term Effluent Recharge on Phosphate Sorption by Soils in a Wastewater Reclamation Plant

The Soreq recharge basins, used for wastewater reclamation employing the Soil-Aquifer Treatment (SAT) system, have been recharged, on average, by about 1,800 m depth of secondary effluent during their operation period of ～25 years. An estimated amount of ～6 kg P m^?2 was added to the soil/sediment column during this period. The objective of this study was to compare phosphorous sorption characteristics of representative pristine soils in the Soreq recharge site to those of the basin soils sampled after a long period of effluent recharge. Batch isotherm experiments were conducted: samples of one g of soil were equilibrated with 25 mL of 0.02 M NaCl solution containing 0–3.2 mM of phosphate for 7 days at 25± 1^°C and P sorption was measured. Long-term effluent recharge significantly decreased the maximum P sorption capacity of the top sandy soil (0.15–0.3 m) and only very slightly decreased maximum P isotherm capacity of the deep clayey-sand soil (10–10.5 m). The retention of P in the basin sandy soil primarily involved sorption and surface precipitation reactions on soil carbonates. In the basin clayey-sand soil, P was retained by its sorption on surfaces of Fe, Al, Mn oxide/hydroxides and clay minerals. Long-term effluent recharge increased EPC₀, (the equilibrium P concentration in solution at which there is no sorption or desorption to or from the soil under the given conditions), of the basin soils compared to the pristine soils. Due to loading of the top horizons with P by prolonged recharge and reduced P concentration in the effluent, EPC₀ of the basin sandy soil is now equal to the average P concentration of the recharged effluents. If effluent P concentration will decrease further, the top sandy soil will become a source of P to the reclaimed water, rather than a sink. The clayey-sand layers and lenses in the vadose zone of the SAT system of the Soreq site offer a large capacity for P adsorption. With gradual leaching of carbonate minerals and synthesis of secondary clay minerals, driven by long-term effluent recharge, P retention mechanisms in the basin soil may be changed, but this process would be extremely slow.     

再生水灌溉区农田包气带及地下水中硝酸盐分布特征及来源研究

本文通过对华北平原典型再生水灌溉区(河北省石家庄洨河流域)的包气带土壤、地表水和地下水进行采样分析,对硝酸盐在多种环境介质中的来源与环境行为进行了研究,识别了再生水灌溉区地下水硝酸盐污染来源,明确了不同灌溉条件对包气带土壤中硝酸盐迁移的影响。在受到城市再生水严重影响的洨河流域,地下水中的硝酸盐浓度分布范围在4.0 mg·L?1到156.6 mg·L?1之间,已经形成了距离河道2 km、深度70 m的硝酸盐高值区域,经过计算硝酸盐的垂向扩散速率为每年1～2 m。硝酸盐与氯离子的相关性表明,城市再生水是再生水灌溉区包气带、地表水和地下水中硝酸盐的主要来源。利用Geoprobe获取利用不同灌溉水农田土壤剖面样品,研究再生水对厚包气带NO3?-N垂向分布影响,再生水灌溉区和地下水灌溉区中包气带土壤的NO3?-N的平均含量为137.0 mg·kg-1和107.7 mg·kg-1,最高含量523.2 mg·L?1和725.9 mg·L?1,分别出现1.20 m和0.85 m深度,分布规律有着明显的差别。包气带土壤硝酸盐与氯离子的相关性分析表明,再生水灌溉区土壤硝酸盐主要来源于城市再生水,而地下水灌溉区可能来源于农田氮肥。地下水年龄和硝酸盐之间关系表明,地下水中1975年以前补给的硝酸盐浓度低于1975年以后补给,地下水硝酸盐污染与包气带氮入渗的历史过程密切相关。在华北平原特殊的地质水文背景下,农田面源污染对地下水的影响有限,但再生水灌溉区地下水硝酸盐污染的风险较高。     

再生水回灌的农业环境风险及对策

随着我国城市化进程加快和经济的快速发展,需水量大幅增加,造成局部缺水严重,与此同时城市污水处理厂的数量和规模不断增大,而这些污水处理厂出水(再生水)直接排入河流而没有被再次利用造成资源浪费,再生水回用后对土壤环境的不确定性影响是造成再生水利用率较低的重要原因。本文系统总结了再生水回用对土壤环境的盐分、有机质组分、微生物、重金属、难降解有机污染物的国内外的研究成果,指出:(1)再生水回用于灌溉在提高肥力的同时,能够引起土壤盐分的累积;(2)再生水回用于灌溉能够导致土壤微生物菌群的变化,也有引起环境卫生的风险,但是风险极低;(3)再生水灌溉能够引起部分重金属元素的累积;(4)再生水灌溉对土壤难降解有机污染物的影响是未来研究的热点。     

再生水灌溉对玉米和大豆品质影响的试验研究

为了合理利用城市污水处理后的再生水资源,研究再生水灌溉对作物品质的影响,该文采用北京高碑店污水处理厂的两种再生水(二级再生水、三级再生水),以清水为对照进行玉米和大豆盆栽种植试验。通过对籽粒常规养分、微量元素和重金属含量等项目的测定分析,对再生水灌溉情况下的作物品质进行研究。研究结果表明：再生水灌溉对玉米和大豆籽粒粗蛋白、粗淀粉含量无显著影响;在微量元素方面,对大豆籽粒的影响同对照差异不显著,而对玉米籽粒的影响同水质有关;玉米和大豆籽粒中的重金属铅、镉含量虽均低于国家卫生标准(GB 2715-1981)规定,但二级再生水灌溉的玉米镉含量相对对照增加显著。因此认为三级再生水相对二级再生水应用于作物灌溉更具安全性,对二级再生水中重金属镉含量应严格控制。