Water points and their influence on grazing resources in central northern Namibia

Debate among scientists about ecological dynamics and appropriate management of semi‐arid rangelands has led to a challenge of received wisdoms of range management and pastoral development in dryland Africa. In our study, we investigated impacts of grazing on grass composition around permanent water points along a pipeline and around a traditional hand‐dug well in an important grazing area in central northern Namibia. Grass species abundance and selected environmental variables sampled along transects radiating out from these water points were analysed using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Significant grazing‐induced changes, manifested by palatable perennial grasses being replaced by less palatable annual grasses, were identified around water points along the pipeline. There annual grasses Schmidtia kalihariensis and Aristida stipioides dominate the vegetation as far as 5 km from the water points. No significant grazing‐induced changes in grass composition were observed around the hand‐dug well. Private ownership leading to stronger control of access to traditional wells compared to the open access water points along the pipeline seems to be a key factor preventing overutilisation of grazing resources around the former. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Integrating biodiversity representation with multiple criteria in North-Central Namibia using non-dominated alternatives and a modified analytic hierarchy process

A protocol is developed for the incorporation of multiple criteria, including spatial design and socio-political criteria, into the design of conservation area networks. This protocol begins with the identification of the non-dominated set of alternatives, where each alternative is a network of conservation areas that satisfies biodiversity representation targets. This set is then refined to identify a finally preferred alternative using a modification of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. This modification ensures that the results obtained are identical to those that would be obtained using standard multiattribute value theory while allowing the use of the transparent preference method of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. The final stage of the protocol consists of sensitivity analyses to test the robustness of the ranking of the alternative set. The protocol is applied to a practical data set from northern Namibia to identify a set of land units that can be targeted for biodiversity conservation beyond the existing national parks.     

Effects of bush encroachment on an assemblage of diurnal lizard species in central Namibia

Bush encroachment is a serious environmental and economic problem in Namibia, but little is known about impacts on native reptile diversity. Area-confined visual surveys were used to examine a diurnal lizard assemblage in central Namibian commercial ranchlands. Surveys were conducted in plots of open savanna habitat and proximal bush-encroached habitat. The following four species comprised 97.5% of all lizard observations: Pedioplanis undata, Mabuya varia, M. striata, and Lygodactylus bradfieldi. Pedioplanis undata was terrestrial, and the remaining three species were largely arboreal in our study plots. Mabuya varia was found in all savanna plots but was absent from all bush-encroached plots. Two species (P. undata and L. bradfieldi) were less abundant in bush-encroached plots. One species (M. striata) was more abundant in bush-encroached plots than in open savanna plots. Arboreal lizards demonstrated an avoidance to invasive woody plant species. Decreased diversity of habitat structure in bush-encroached habitats appears to influence native savanna lizard assemblages. Our results are consistent with accumulating evidence suggesting that bush encroachment and its associated ecological impacts are reorganizing savanna ecosystems throughout southern Africa.     

The effect of development interventions on the use of indigenous range management strategies in the Borana Lowlands in Ethiopia

In the last three decades, the Borana rangelands of Southern Ethiopia have been deteriorating due to unsustainable utilization. This paper analyses the changes in indigenous range management among the Borana pastoralists and the role of development interventions. The fieldwork was carried out during 2000–2002, following a severe drought. Two locations, Dida Hara and Web, that once were part of a large grazing system with seasonally distinct herd movements, experienced differences in development interventions. Indigenous range management strategies and pastoralists' current use of key strategies before and after the last drought were compared based on pastoralists' information about land‐use change collected through participatory appraisals, land‐use mapping, and household surveys. Priorities for future interventions were discussed in multi‐stakeholder workshops. Water development in rainy season grazing areas such as Dida Hara has resulted in year‐round grazing and expansion of permanent encampments. This has affected the traditional dry‐season areas like Web because it interrupted the organization of rangeland management. Herd mobility became less applicable and traditional land‐use classifications have lost their function in range management. The introduction of government‐imposed administration disturbed the indigenous institutional networks and negotiation procedures for controlled herd movements. Aggravated by human population growth, this reinforces a higher and more permanent grazing pressure, leading to the deterioration of rangelands. Despite the disturbance of pastoralists' range management practices considerable technical and management capabilities prevail. Innovative development approaches should integrate indigeneous knowledge‐based (IK) strategies and formal legislation, but this requires strong external support and official recognition from the Ethiopian Government. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

北京山区森林景观格局与环境关系的CCA研究

根据北京山区森林资源调查二类数据,在ArcGIS的支持下,采用网格样方的采样方法,进行典范对应分析(CCA),对北京山区的森林景观格局与环境因子关系进行了分析研究。结果表明,在北京山区,坡向、坡位和土壤厚度与森林景观类型的空间分布相关性较低,森林景观类型的空间格局更多地受到海拔和坡度的影响,海拔是控制森林景观类型空间分布的主要因素,其次是坡度;森林景观在总体上表现为人工林分布在低海拔地区,天然林分布在高海拔地区,这与景观类型在CCA排序图上的分布一致。     

基于DCCA的蓟县八仙山土壤种子库特征分析

[目的]通过研究天津市蓟县八仙山土壤种子库特征,为土壤种子库应用于植被恢复提供参考。[方法]采用除趋势典范对应分析(DCCA)方法探究土壤种子库与环境因子的关系。[结果](1)相比天津市其他样地,蓟县八仙山土壤种子库萌发物种丰富度较高,物种高达42种,但土壤种子库密度却最低,这与岩石裸露,土层薄弱,动物取食效应明显有很大关系;(2)土壤种子库的Sorensen相似性指数较低,但Simpson生态优势度指数、Shannon—Wiener多样性指数和Pielow均匀度指数却较高;(3)随着海拔逐渐升高,群落结构明显变化,木本植物数量增多。随着坡向逐渐向阳,植被类型由喜阴植物逐渐变成向阳植物。[结论]通过DCCA分析,土壤种子库物种呈现明显的3个聚类。影响土壤种子库主要的土壤因子为有机质、pH值和全磷。     

半干旱区湿地-干草原交错带判定及植物群落与环境关系的典范对应分析

为探究半干旱区湿地-干草原生态交错带的边界及影响其植被空间分布格局的主要环境因子,以宁夏哈巴湖荒漠湿地自然保护区内的四儿滩湿地为例,采用样线调查法获得植被与环境数据:首先利用游动分割窗技术对研究区进行交错带定量判定,将其分为旱生带、交错带、湿生带并计算沿不同生境梯度β多样性变化趋势;然后,采用典范对应分析法对研究区植被数据矩阵和环境数据矩阵进行排序,同时进行排序轴与土壤环境因子间的秩相关分析.结果表明:采用游动分割窗技术判定四儿滩湿地-干草原交错带最适窗口宽度为6～8个样方;不同生境带β多样性指数存在明显梯度变化;典范对应分析结果显示,植被在CCA排序图上的分布与游动分割窗技术的划分结果相吻合,含盐量(质量分数)、含水量是影响四儿滩植被空间分布的主要环境因子,对含盐量和含水量有较高适应值的物种集中分布于土壤盐渍化严重的湿生带.研究结果将为四儿滩湿地的恢复和保护提供参考.     

黄土丘陵区典型群落特征及其与环境因子的关系

研究了安塞县黄土丘陵区4种典型群落分布、物种多样性、生物量变化与环境因子的关系。结果表明,所选群落的盖度和地上、地下生物量随退耕年限增加而明显增加,土壤水分、粘粒含量也有增加趋势;典范对应、多元回归和通径分析表明,群落的分布及变化受环境因子综合影响,土壤有机质、恢复年限、粘粒含量、坡向、海拔、硝态氮含量等是影响退耕地典型群落特征及分布的主要因子;土壤全磷含量对生态优势度,有机质、全氮含量分别对地上、地下生物量有最大正效应。本研究为黄土丘陵半干旱区退耕地植被恢复重建提供了理论依据。     

东北黑土农业生态系统线虫多样性研究

The diversity and distribution patterns of soil nematode communities in phaeozem agroecosystems of Northeast China were assessed to evaluate nematode taxonomic diversity and functional diversity in relation to climatic condition and soil characteristics in human modified landscape.Along the latitudinal gradient,soil samples were collected from north (Hailun) to south (Gongzhuling) down to a depth of 100 cm with intervals of 0-20,20-40,40-60,60-80,and 80-100 cm.The nematode abundance and taxonomic diversity (generic richness) were lower at Hailun than at other sites,and higher values of evenness were observed at Hailun and Harbin than at Dehui and Gongzhuling.Nematode faunal analysis revealed that soil food web at Hailun was successionally more mature or structured,and the environment little disturbed,while at Harbin and Gongzhuling,the soil food web was degraded with stressed environment.The environmental variables relevant in explaining the patterns of nematode distribution and diversity in phaeozem agroecosystems,using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA),were the mean annual temperature,total nitrogen,electrical conductivity,mean annual precipitation,and other soil properties.Among these variables,the mean annual temperature was a relatively important factor,which could explain 29.05% of the variations in nematode composition.     

The effect of rainfall on spatio‐temporal variability in cropping systems and duration of crop cover in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands

In the Northern Ethiopian Highlands, ca. 33% of the land is cropland, which is mainly cultivated by smallholders who based on indigenous knowledge plan their cropping system on the basis of spatio‐temporal variability in rainfall. To understand the relationships between rainfall variability and cropping systems, a field campaign was undertaken in the rainy season of 2009 when 118 farmers were interviewed at different locations with different environmental characteristics. Five cropping systems were identified, each having a distinct cropping season length and crop association. Cropping systems with shorter cropping seasons were generally on the valleysides, whereas longer cycles occurred in the valley bottoms. The length of cropping season also increased from north–northeast to south–southwest. Crop associations within cropping systems also varied with altitude. Cropping systems changed in response to variation in annual rainfall. This resulted in shifts of cropping systems at catchment and regional scales, with cropping systems having longer cropping seasons where there was greater annual precipitation. The results were scaled up to the whole region by modelling the spatial distribution of cropping systems at a 8 × 8 km² resolution over the period 1996–2009. The results indicate that indigenous knowledge is important when assessing the impact of climatic variability on agricultural production and that large inter‐annual variability in the duration of crop cover in Northern Ethiopia might be an important, although generally overlooked, explanatory factor for explaining previous land degradation cycles.     

The Effect of Landscape Conservation Measures in Changing Landscape Patterns: A Case Study in Mediterranean Mountains

Mediterranean mountain landscapes have high ecological and cultural values. However, since 1950, a large number of these landscapes have been subject to degradation as a consequence of land abandonment. Some regional administrations have enacted measures that favour the regeneration of pasturelands through scrubland clearing. The aim of this study was to evaluate the consequences of clearing and the regeneration of pasturelands on landscape structure and the recovery of extensive livestock in La Rioja. The results indicate that between 1986 and 2011 an area of 29,659 ha was cleared in the mountains of La Rioja, although 62·6% of this was cleared in the period 2000–2011. In 1956, the landscape was dominated by cultivated fields, but by 2001, much of the agricultural area had been abandoned and replaced by scrubland, natural woods and reforested areas. Furthermore, the landscape was more fragmented in 1956 than in 2001. The landscape structure varied following clearing, with a doubling in the number of patches and an increase in heterogeneity. The consequences of clearing have included an increase in the area of pastureland and the number of large animals. In addition, the number of farms has decreased, but their mean size has increased. Clearing is an appropriate way for spatial reorganization in marginal mountain areas. It does not require excessive investment but favours the reintegration of abandoned fields and an increase in pasturelands. The results of this study contribute to the debate about reclaiming mountain landscapes affected by human activities and subject to intense degradation processes. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

松嫩平原西部土地整理对盐渍化土壤的改良效果

为了研究松嫩平原西部土地整理对盐渍化土壤的改良效果,以吉林省白城市镇赉县土地整理项目区为研究区域,采用野外采样与室内分析相结合的方法,分析了原耕地、盐碱地和新增耕地土壤电导率、阳离子总量、阴离子总量、碱化度、pH值、有机质以及阳离子交换量等指标的差异。结果表明:在0~20和﹥20~40 cm土层上,新增耕地土壤电导率显著低于盐碱地44.9%和37.0%(P0.05),显著高于原耕地35.7%和58.6%(P0.05);新增耕地阳离子总量和阴离子总量均显著低于盐碱地(P0.05);盐碱地土壤碱化度在37.0%~38.2%之间,pH值接近10.0,为重度碱化土壤,新增耕地土壤碱化度在18.0%~21.6%之间,pH值低于9.0,为中度碱化土壤,其土壤碱化程度与原耕地接近;新增耕地土壤有机质显著高于盐碱地33.4%和61.3%(P0.05),在0~20 cm土层上显著低于原耕地21.5%(P0.05);新增耕地阳离子交换量比盐碱地提高16.7%和25.1%(不显著,P0.05),同时显著高于原耕地4.8%和11.0%(P0.05)。典范对应分析表明,土壤盐渍化、肥力指标和土壤离子组成与样地类型分布存在着空间上的有序关系,样地类型由盐碱地向新增耕地的变化,在土壤理化性质层面是盐渍化指标降低、肥力指标升高的过程;在土壤离子组成层面是HCO3-、CO32-和Na+等离子含量降低的过程。总体来看,松嫩平原西部土地整理能有效改良盐渍化土壤,但新增耕地土壤质量仍低于原耕地,建议在土地整理中通过完善灌溉与排水系统、将土地平整工程与深耕深松和增施有机肥相结合及采用生物措施等提升盐渍化土壤的改良效果。     

洞庭湖典型断面藻类组成及其与环境因子典范对应分析

2010年对洞庭湖6个典型断面进行了浮游藻类生物调查,共鉴定出7门72属（种）,浮游藻类的密度范围在67.2×104～161.9×104cell·L-1;各典型断面间浮游藻类组成以硅藻和隐藻占优势,藻类群落结构存在着明显的差异。藻类Margalef指数及Shannon-Wienner指数范围分别为3.64～4.03和3.03～3.24,水体水质状况良好。应用CANOCO4.5软件对获得的浮游植物数据和环境因子数据进行典范相关分析（CCA）,作出物种与环境因子关系的二维排序图。结果显示,典型断面藻类群落分布受水环境因子影响较为明显,整体上,DO和TN是影响洞庭湖典型断面藻类物种分布格局的主要因素。     

黄土丘陵区典型植物群落根系垂直分布与环境因子的关系

深入研究植被恢复过程中根系与环境因子的响应规律,对于当前西部地区的生态环境建设中有关林草措施的配置问题具有重要理论意义和实践价值。采用对应分析（CA）和典范对应分析（EtA）方法研究黄土丘陵区4种典型植物群落的根系垂直分布特征及其与环境因子的关系。结果表明,所选群落的根系生物量随土层深度增加而明显减小,0～40cm土层根系生物量超过总根量的85％。借助CA分析将根系的垂直分布特征分为T1、T2和T3,其中大多数群落属于T1型,即表层根量聚积型,0～20cm土层根量远高于其他层次;T2和T3型为深根与浅根型根系的组合类型,层次变化相对缓和。群落根系的垂直分布及变化受环境因子的综合影响,T1型分布在硝态氮含量较高且有机质和全氮含量较低的地段;T2和髓型的有机质和全氮含量较高,硝态氮含量较低;土壤水分含量、密度、硝态氮是影响退耕地典型植物群落根系垂直分布特征的主要环境因子。     

土层深度和季节变化对保护地西瓜连作土壤中丛枝菌根真菌群落结构的影响

The characteristics of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) community structure in various soil depths and growing seasons of watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) grown in commercial greenhouses in Daxing of Beijing and Weifang and Laiyang of Shandong, China were investigated using both morphological identification and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. The sampled soils had been used for continuous greenhouse production of watermelon for 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20 years. Glomus claroideum was the dominant species in the greenhouse soils planted for 5, 10, and 15 years in Laiyang, while Glomus mosseae and Glomus etunicatum were dominant in the nearby open farmland soil. Sorenson’s similarity index of AMF community composition ranged from 0.67 to 0.84 in the soils planted for 5 years, and from 0.29 to 0.33 for 20 years among the three locations. Spore abundance, species richness, and the Shannon index were highest near the soil surface (0-10 cm) and decreased with soil depth, and higher in June and October than in August and December. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that available P and the number of years that soil had been used for greenhouse production were the main factors contributing to the variance of AMF community composition. It was concluded that the community structure of AMF was mainly influenced by soil available P and planting time of watermelon as well as by soil depth and seasonal variation in the commercial greenhouse.     

华北潮土区不同耕作方式下土壤动物丰富度与多样性

在黄淮海平原小麦-玉米一年两熟地区,试验设置了5个处理,分别为玉米小麦每年均翻耕(CTWT)、玉米免耕+小麦每年翻耕(CNTWT)、玉米免耕+小麦每2年翻耕(CNTW2T)、玉米免耕+小麦每4年翻耕(CNTW4T)、玉米小麦每年均免耕(CNTWNT),所有处理的农作物地上秸秆全部移出。调查结果显示,中小型土壤动物在数量上占总数的比例为83%～91%,土壤动物主要分布在表层,占有其总量的71.9%～73.2%。土壤动物存在显著的季节性动态,其丰富度在玉米季高于小麦季。土壤动物Shannon多样性指数在整体上表现为翻耕高于免耕处理,玉米季翻耕处理下有更高的均匀度指数,但小麦季均匀度指数差异不显著。多元典范冗余分析表明,耕作方式主要是对土壤动物的时间动态和垂直分布产生影响,从而间接地影响了土壤动物的数量和组成。     

巢湖藻类组成与环境因子典范对应分析

2008年5月—2009年5月对巢湖藻类组成及水质的季节变化进行了逐月调查研究。鉴定的藻类共6门31属48种,其中绿藻比例最高,占47.9%。藻类优势种群为蓝藻门的铜绿微囊藻（Microcystic aeruginosa）,出现频度为90.9%。3个采样点藻类群落组成没有明显差异,藻类物种丰富度指数（Margalef值）和藻细胞密度的变化范围分别为0.10~1.84和（12.65~825.00）×106 cell.L-1,且冬季值较低。同时,叶绿素（1.30~41.10μg.L-1）和总磷（0.06~0.48 mg.L-1）含量分别在秋季和夏季显著高于其他季节。典范对应分析（CCA）显示,藻类种群分布受水环境因子的影响较为明显。整体上,TP是影响巢湖藻类种群分布的重要因素。     

The effect of environmental variables on soil characteristics at different scales in the transition zone of the Loess Plateau in China

As a result of human disturbance and topographic variability, land use mosaics are characteristic of the transition zone of the Loess Plateau in Shaanxi Province, China. Soils are particularly sensitive to change when land degradation processes are dominant. An understanding of the influences of environmental variables is required to inform land management and agricultural production. In this study the relationships between land type, topography and soil properties were analysed for Hengshan County at two different scales using detrended canonical correspondence analysis. The results show that variations in soil properties are strongly influenced by topography, land use and vegetation. Slope, elevation and aspect are also of importance at the county and small catchment scales of analysis. Though land use type proved to be of lesser importance than topographic factors, ANOVA analysis showed that there were significant differences in soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), available nitrogen, available potassium and clay %. Areas under vegetables had significantly higher SOM and TN content at the catchment scale. The results will enhance our ability to predict spatial and temporal changes in soils. In addition, it is shown that soil fertility could be improved by land reform and management in the hilly‐gully area.     

亚热带中尺度流域氮磷输出的长期变化规律与影响因素

选择中亚热带红壤丘陵区赣江上游的潋水河流域(579 km2),基于长期监测和SWAT模型反演研究了流域尺度养分输出的长期变化规律,采用集成推进树(ABT)和部分典范对应分析(PCCA)方法揭示了流域尺度养分输出的影响因素。2003—2009年的监测结果表明:潋水河流域氮磷输出量年际差异显著,流域年均总氮和总磷输出量分别为1.10 t/(km2·a)和0.12 t/(km2·a)。SWAT模型反演分析显示,长期大规模的水土流失治理显著减少了流域氮磷流失,1983—1990年年均总氮和总磷输出量比治理前分别下降了43.8%和51.0%,1993—2002年则比前一阶段分别下降了28.3%和27.2%。总体上,人为因素对流域养分输出量长期变化(1978—2009)的影响高于气候因素,人为因素对31年间流域总氮和总磷年输出量变化总的贡献率分别为48.7%和38.9%,气候因素总贡献率分别为23.2%和22.8%。人为因素中人口是主要的影响因素,其他重要的影响因素包括氮磷肥施用量、疏林地面积、土地利用程度和植被指数。研究区需要在控制流域人口密度和合理施肥基础上,通过流域治理措施合理调整流域土地利用,以实现对流域氮磷输出的控制。