MAKING LAND MANAGEMENT MORE SUSTAINABLE: EXPERIENCE IMPLEMENTING A NEW METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK IN BOTSWANA

It is increasingly recognised that tackling land degradation through more sustainable land management depends on incorporating multiple perspectives by using a variety of methods at multiple scales, including the perspectives of those who manage and/or use the land. This paper reports experience implementing a previously proposed methodological framework that is designed to facilitate knowledge sharing between researchers and stakeholders about land degradation severity and extent, and sustainable land management options. Empirical findings are presented from the Botswana site of the EU‐funded Desertification Mitigation and Remediation of Land project. The paper reflects upon the challenges and benefits of the proposed framework and identifies a number of benefits, notably related to insights arising from the integration of local and scientific knowledge, and the ownership of the sustainable land management strategies that emerged from the process. However, implementing the framework was not without challenges, and levels of poverty and formal education may limit the implementation of the framework in some developing world contexts. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Farmer Perceptions and Responses to Soil Degradation in Swaziland

Soil degradation is globally concerning due to its adverse effects on the environment and agricultural production. Much of Swaziland is at risk from degradation. This paper assesses farmer perceptions and responses to soil degradation in 2002 and 2014, focusing on two land uses that underpin rural livelihoods: arable land and rangeland areas. It uses repeat household surveys and semi‐structured interviews, in two case study chiefdoms in the country's middleveld (KaBhudla and Engcayini) in the first longitudinal study of its kind. We find that observations of land degradation are perceived mainly through changes in land productivity, with chemical degradation occurring predominantly on arable land and physical degradation and erosion mainly in rangeland areas. Changes in rainfall are particularly important in determining responses. While perceptions of the causes and impacts of degradation largely concur with the scientific literature, responses were constrained by poor land availability, shorter and more unpredictable cropping seasons because of changing rains and low awareness, access to or knowledge of agricultural inputs. We suggest that sustainable arable land management can be enhanced through improved access to alternative sources of water, use of management practices that retain soil and moisture and greater access to agricultural inputs and capacity building to ensure their appropriate use. We suggest collaborative management for settlement planning that integrates soil conservation and livestock management strategies such as controlled stocking levels and rotational grazing could improve land quality in rangeland areas. Together, these approaches can help land users to better manage change. © 2016 The Authors. Land Degradation & Development published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

Community‐Based Rehabilitation of Mountain Terraces in Cyprus

Participatory methods and community‐based approaches have an important role to play in combating land degradation. This paper follows a well‐defined participatory framework to identify key stakeholders and to select Sustainable Land Management approaches for reducing soil erosion and land degradation in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus. Among the options suggested and evaluated by stakeholders, terrace rehabilitation had the best overall performance, followed by crop diversification and afforestation. Stakeholders agreed that the rehabilitation of dry‐stone terraces was the preferred option, as it is a practice with high environmental benefits and fits well in the local socio‐cultural context, despite the higher cost compared to other options. In the first year of implementing the approach, three mountain communities co‐organised hands‐on terrace maintenance events, engaging more than 160 people in rehabilitation activities. The community‐based approach has sparked the interest of people within and beyond the research site, and another series of events is scheduled for the coming season. This outcome indicates that social innovations can benefit from the integration of local and scientific knowledge, while participatory process can enhance the self‐confidence and organisational structures of local communities. Sustaining and enhancing the impact of the approach in the long‐run require developing local terrace maintenance institutions, actively engaging the youth in terrace management and improving the profitability of mountain farming through the differentiation of local products. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Appraising and selecting conservation measures to mitigate desertification and land degradation based on stakeholder participation and global best practices

Most desertification research focuses on degradation assessments without putting sufficient emphasis on prevention and mitigation strategies, although the concept of sustainable land management (SLM) is increasingly being acknowledged. A variety of already applied conservation measures exist at the local level, but they are not adequately recognised, evaluated and shared, either by land users, technicians, researchers, or policy makers. Likewise, collaboration between research and implementation is often insufficient. The aim of this paper is to present a new methodology for a participatory process of appraising and selecting desertification mitigation strategies, and to present first experiences from its application in the EU‐funded DESIRE project. The methodology combines a collective learning and decision approach with the use of evaluated global best practices. In three parts, it moves through a concise process, starting with identifying land degradation and locally applied solutions in a stakeholder workshop, leading to assessing local solutions with a standardised evaluation tool, and ending with jointly selecting promising strategies for implementation with the help of a decision support tool. The methodology is currently being applied in 16 study sites. Preliminary analysis from the application of the first part of the methodology shows that the initial stakeholder workshop results in a good basis for stakeholder cooperation, and in promising land conservation practices for further assessment. Study site research teams appreciated the valuable results, as burning issues and promising options emerged from joint reflection. The methodology is suitable to initiate mutual learning among different stakeholder groups and to integrate local and scientific knowledge. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT FOR LAND DEGRADATION MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF CONTEMPORARY THINKING

It is increasingly recognised that land degradation monitoring and assessment can benefit from incorporating multiple sources of knowledge, using a variety of methods at different scales, including the perspectives of researchers, land managers and other stakeholders. However, the knowledge and methods required to achieve this are often dispersed across individuals and organisations at different levels and locations. Appropriate knowledge management mechanisms are therefore required to more efficiently harness these different sources of knowledge and facilitate their broader dissemination and application. This paper examines what knowledge is, how it is generated and explores how it may be stored, transferred and exchanged between knowledge producers and users before it is applied to monitor and assess land degradation at the local scale. It suggests that knowledge management can also benefit from the development of mechanisms that promote changes in understanding and efficient means of accessing and/or brokering knowledge. Broadly, these processes for knowledge management can (i) help identify and share good practices and build capacity for land degradation monitoring at different scales and in different contexts and (ii) create knowledge networks to share lessons learned and monitoring data among and between different stakeholders, scales and locations. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of development interventions on the use of indigenous range management strategies in the Borana Lowlands in Ethiopia

In the last three decades, the Borana rangelands of Southern Ethiopia have been deteriorating due to unsustainable utilization. This paper analyses the changes in indigenous range management among the Borana pastoralists and the role of development interventions. The fieldwork was carried out during 2000–2002, following a severe drought. Two locations, Dida Hara and Web, that once were part of a large grazing system with seasonally distinct herd movements, experienced differences in development interventions. Indigenous range management strategies and pastoralists' current use of key strategies before and after the last drought were compared based on pastoralists' information about land‐use change collected through participatory appraisals, land‐use mapping, and household surveys. Priorities for future interventions were discussed in multi‐stakeholder workshops. Water development in rainy season grazing areas such as Dida Hara has resulted in year‐round grazing and expansion of permanent encampments. This has affected the traditional dry‐season areas like Web because it interrupted the organization of rangeland management. Herd mobility became less applicable and traditional land‐use classifications have lost their function in range management. The introduction of government‐imposed administration disturbed the indigenous institutional networks and negotiation procedures for controlled herd movements. Aggravated by human population growth, this reinforces a higher and more permanent grazing pressure, leading to the deterioration of rangelands. Despite the disturbance of pastoralists' range management practices considerable technical and management capabilities prevail. Innovative development approaches should integrate indigeneous knowledge‐based (IK) strategies and formal legislation, but this requires strong external support and official recognition from the Ethiopian Government. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessments of landscape level degradation in southern Ethiopia: pastoralists versus ecologists

This paper compares land degradation assessment techniques using indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) of the Booran pastoralists and techniques used by ecologists. The study was conducted at landscape and regional levels in southern Ethiopia, where the Booran pastoral production system comprised the Golbo (lowlands), the Dirre (Plateau) and the Liiban production systems (hereafter also referred to as regions). The study, by involving traditional range scouts in evaluating landscape and regional level environmental changes, challenges the notion that IEK is mythical and could not meet scientific rigour. We show that the use of common soil and vegetation indices allows comparisons of land degradation assessments between the IEK of the pastoralists and ecological techniques. Evaluation by traditional range scouts (TRSCs) and range ecologists (REs) on changes in range conditions and trends showed high correlations. Indigenous ecological knowledge was effectively used to determine landscape suitability and potential grazing capacity of individual landscapes and at regional levels. We show different perceptions in interpreting grazing suitability and potential grazing capacity. Management did not change the latter, which is an inherent property of individual landscapes, while the former could be altered. Both TRSCs and REs made comparable predictions on threats to range conditions and trends, but interpreted landscape stability differently. We suggest that integrating IEK in the ecological methods would help identify important perceptions of the pastoralists on effects of land use on local landscapes. Moreover, the value of IEK should also be considered when monitoring landscape level changes as well as when assessing degradation of the grazing lands. We hope the information in this paper will motivate policy‐makers to incorporate the IEK of the pastoralists into decisions on landscape level range rehabilitation. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Knowledge‐Based Approach for Mapping Land Degradation in the Arid Rangelands of North Africa

Rangelands cover about 82% of the arid area of Morocco. It is generally acknowledged that these areas are threatened by desertification. Monitoring desertification requires accurate knowledge about the current status of rangeland degradation. Remote sensing is widely used to assess changes in land cover, but its use in arid rangelands has limitations because of spectral confusion among various types of land cover. The objective of this study was to assess the severity and spatial extent of rangeland degradation in the high plateaus of eastern Morocco, using a knowledge‐based approach combining remote sensing and ancillary data. This approach relies on analyzing datasets derived from Landsat TM satellite imagery, lithology, bioclimatic data and field measurements. The level of rangeland degradation was assessed using indicators such as vegetation parameters, grazing levels and cultivation intensity, which provided a high level of accuracy for mapping and monitoring the degradation of the arid rangelands. The results showed that the total area of degraded rangeland in the high plateaus of eastern Morocco is about 17,417 km², accounting for 48% in the studied area. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Land degradation assessment in Southern Africa: integrating local and scientific knowledge bases

Recent attempts to address land degradation have seen calls for greater integration of scientific expertise with local knowledges. In this paper we investigate the potential for such combined understandings to enhance the accuracy, coverage and relevance of land degradation assessment. We followed a participatory approach, using methods from a variety of disciplines, to elicit potential land degradation indicators from communities in Botswana and Swaziland. These indicators were then assessed according to local and scientific understandings. We noted a significant overlap between scientific and local knowledges about land degradation in most instances. Where discrepancies occurred, the integrated participatory approach we used allows appropriate explanation to be reached, supporting the case that such an iterative process can lead to both accurate and relevant monitoring of land degradation. However, the incorporation of integrated knowledges into national policy has not been widespread in either country, suggesting that much greater efforts are required to institutionalise participatory land degradation assessment methodologies. Powerful, often neo‐Malthusian narratives of degradation continue to dominate policy discourse and limit the extent to which hybrid combined local and scientific knowledges can enhance land degradation assessment on a national and regional scale. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil science contributions towards Sustainable Development Goals and their implementation: linking soil functions with ecosystem services

The United Nations effort to define Sustainable Development Goals (SDG's), emphasizing local goals and capacity building, offers a unique opportunity for soil science to demonstrate the role it can play when focusing on these goals. Several strategic reports have presented key issues for sustainable development: food security, freshwater and energy availability, climate change and biodiversity loss are issues most frequently being listed, not soil degradation. Focusing on soil contributions towards interdisciplinary studies of these key issues, rather than emphasizing soils by themselves, is therefore bound to be more effective for the soil science profession. But this is still inadequate when studying land‐related SDG's, requiring a broader ecosystem approach that can be achieved by a direct link between soil functions and corresponding ecosystem services. Thus, the key issues are not considered separately but linked as part of a dynamic ecosystem characterization following a narrative as is demonstrated for food security, that can be well addressed by precision agriculture. As all key issues and at least five of the ten SDG's are directly land‐related, soil science can potentially play an important role in the suggested interdisciplinary studies. But in addition, the current information society with knowledgeable stakeholders requires innovative and interactive transdisciplinary scientific approaches by not only focusing on knowledge generation but also on co‐learning with stakeholders and, important, on implementation. The soil science discipline can become more effective in the transdisciplinary context by: (1) reconnecting the knowledge chain, linking tacit with scientific knowledge both ways, (2) simplifying soil terminology, (3) learning to deal with “wicked” environmental problems for which no single solutions exist but only a series of alternative options for action, balancing economic, social and environmental considerations, (4) educating “knowledge brokers”, linking science with society in land‐related issues, acting within a “Community of Scientific Practice”, and (5) modernizing soil science curricula. Transdisciplinary approaches are crucial to achieve SDG's, linking science and society. There is a need for specific results on the ground illustrating with hard data the key role soils can play in realizing SDG's.     

RANGELAND DEGRADATION ON THE QINGHAI‐TIBET PLATEAU: IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION

With ever intensifying land use, land degradation is becoming an increasingly important issue around the world, especially in China. This paper evaluates the extent and underlying causes of rangeland degradation on the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau in China through a comprehensive review of the literature. Diverse forms and differing intensities of rangeland degradation have been reported in several regions of the Plateau. Rangeland degradation is particularly severe in South Qinghai, North Tibet and the Qaidam Basin. Anthropogenic activities, especially changing land use practices, are identified as the primary force driving rangeland degradation. Dissimilar to climate change‐induced degradation, such anthropogenic degradation is a rather short‐term process altering the abiotic properties of the underlying soil. On the basis of these findings, we assessed the prospects of rehabilitating degraded rangeland to productive uses. Different measures are proposed to rehabilitate rangelands that have been degraded by different mechanisms. Reduction in grazing intensity is prescribed to rehabilitate reversibly degraded rangelands. Targeted human intervention in the forms of selective planting of grasses and artificial seeding, in conjunction with ecological and biological control of the plateau rodent population, is recommended to rehabilitate ‘irreversibly’ degraded rangelands. Our studies suggest it is very difficult or even impossible to rehabilitate new assemblage of species which appear as a result of climate change. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Successes and Failures in Rangeland Restoration: An Icelandic Case Study

Rangeland restoration is a multilayered process aimed at improving land condition, often parallel to utilization. To ensure the long‐term progress that restoration programmes are expected to deliver, they must be designed, implemented and maintained in partnership with local stakeholders. Each programme should have clear goals, followed up by measurable ecological and/or socio‐economic objectives, to facilitate their evaluation in the long run. In this research, we examine if a large‐scale rangeland restoration programme in Iceland had contributed to the expected attitudinal and behavioural changes among the participating sheep farmers, as described in the initial objectives of the programme. A survey, based on a questionnaire on sheep farmers' attitude and behaviour related to rangeland restoration and land management practices, was used to gauge the perception of participating farmers, in comparison with non‐participating farmers. Our results show that participating farmers are more aware of the potential of rangeland restoration and are more motivated to engage in further collaboration, when compared with non‐participating farmers. Nevertheless, our results indicate that, despite extensive areas of degraded land already successfully treated within the restoration programme, the programme has not facilitated other anticipated attitudinal and behavioural changes among its participants as expected. Furthermore, it seems that the direct incentives provided by the programme are pushing participating farmers towards favouring agronomic instead of ecological approaches in their restoration activities, when compared with the non‐participating farmers. Our results also point to several organizational errors embedded in the programme management that might be halting its further progress. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tobacco cultivation as a driver of land use change and degradation in the miombo woodlands of south‐west Tanzania

Miombo woodlands support agriculture, biodiversity, and multiple ecosystem services across an extensive part of sub‐Saharan Africa. Miombo is frequently overutilised with deforestation and degradation resulting in significant land use and land cover change (LULCC). Understanding the drivers of LULCC is essential to achieving sustainable land management in miombo woodland regions. Within a remote miombo area of south‐west Tanzania in the Kipembawe Division, Mbeya Region, social survey and ecological data were used to identify the direct and indirect drivers of LULCC. Our findings show that tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum ) production results in an estimated annual deforestation rate of 4,134 ± 390 ha of undisturbed miombo woodland, of which 56.3 ± 11.8% is linked to the post‐harvest curing process. This deforestation represents 0.55 ± 0.06% of the wooded area of the Kipembawe Division. The perception of high incomes from tobacco cultivation has encouraged migration of both agriculturalists and pastoralists into the area, resulting in higher livestock numbers that lead to further degradation. Higher human populations need more woodland resources such as fuelwood and building materials and more farmland for food crops. Continued deforestation will reduce the long‐term profitability of tobacco cultivation due to a lack of fuel to cure the crop and could render production unviable. Action is urgently needed to conserve globally important biodiversity resources while enabling agricultural and pastoral activities to continue. Improved governance, together with sustainable land management strategies and diversification of livelihood strategies, can reduce dependence on tobacco cultivation and contribute to a sustainable future for this ecoregion.     

Sediment and society: an approach for assessing management of contaminated sediments and stakeholder involvement in Norway

Introduction

Management options for large-scale contaminated sediment remediation projects can be challenging with regard to competing stakeholder interests. This has become apparent during the Oslofjord sediment remediation project (2005–2009) which caused considerable public discussion.

Background

To learn from this project, the ‘Sediment and society’ project was initiated to develop a collaborative approach that will incorporate local and scientific knowledge in order to achieve mutual gains, win-win outcomes for the stakeholders, in the management of contaminated marine sediments.

Method development

The project focuses on two Norwegian harbours: Oslo Harbour and Bergen Harbour. The Oslo Harbour case has been analysed ex-post, using elements of risk governance: participation, communication, information/knowledge and risk perception. The Bergen Harbour case is focused on the establishment of a citizens' jury as well as a stakeholder panel in Bergen Harbour.

Preliminary results and observations

Thus far, the results suggest three important commonalities or challenges for stakeholder involvement: (1) how to include people who have important management information and local knowledge, but not much influence in the decision-making process; (2) how to secure resources to ensure participation and (3) how to engage and motivate stakeholders to participate early in the sediment remediation planning process.     

Increasing the relevance of scientific information in hillside environments through understanding of local soil management in a small watershed of the Colombian Andes

Abstract. This article explores the question of how scientific information can improve local agronomic management using concepts of uncertainty classification and uncertainty management. Information and data on local management of soil fertility based on a local classification system of soil quality were collected from a small watershed in Cauca (Colombia). The analyses suggest that farmers hold local knowledge about soils at two levels. The first is based on empirical observations and refers to local knowledge about soils and landscape, which shows that the classes identified in the local soil quality classification are consistent with results obtained using measured soil parameters. At the second level, farmers have some awareness of ecological processes and the appropriate use of relationships between key soil characteristics and management options. It is argued that local knowledge is not sufficient to cope with uncertainty introduced by a rapidly changing agriculture, including, for example, increasing land pressure, unpredictable market forces and climate change. We have suggested how scientific knowledge can contribute to the solution, based on an analysis that relates Cohen's ( Heuristic reasoning about uncertainty: an artificial intelligence approach . Pitman London, 1985) and Rowe's ( Risk Analysis 14, 743–750, 1994) uncertainty concepts to local knowledge.     

Land degradation,stocking rates and conservation policies in the communal rangelands of Botswana and Zimbabwe

Communal rangeland management policies in Botswana and Zimbabwe are based on incorrect technical assumptions about the stability of semiarid rangeland, the nature of rangeland degradation, and the benefits of destocking. Consequently, inappropriate policies, stressing the need to destock and stabilise the rangelands, are pursued. Acknowledgement of the great instability but intrinsic resilience of rangeland would encourage the Governments to more favourably regard the opportunistic stocking strategies of the agro-pastoralists of the Communal Areas. However, degradation of rangelands is occurring, although at varying rates. This justifies the promotion of a ‘tracking strategy’, in which livestock densities are encouraged to follow, more closely that at present, variations in rainfall. The establishment of grazing territories controlled by specific ‘communities’ may be a prerequisite for the promotion of the tracking strategy, and for communal rangeland management and improvement. However, the establishment of such territories must take into account social equity, institutional problems and transaction costs, as well as spatial and temporal variation in rangeland resources.     

Using mental models to understand soil management

Soil degradation continues to be a serious issue. This is partially due to the specific characteristics of soil and degradation, many of which are linked to how humans perceive their environment. How a person perceives soil degradation will influence how they interpret this phenomenon, what attitude they adopt towards it, and how they will ultimately decide to act. Mental models are understood as constructed by the human mind as a result of perception, experience, attitudes and knowledge, and the comprehension of discourse. Applying the concept of mental models allows an understanding of land manager decision‐making with regard to soil management, linking perceptions, attitudes and beliefs with behaviour. We show how mental models can help identify consistencies and differences of perceptions of different soil‐related stakeholders, such as farmers, scientists, administrators, advisors and policy makers. In a practical test of the concept, a diagram‐based representation of mental models was applied in south‐western Spain. We found that the occurrences of overlap in the mental model of soil‐related stakeholders are the areas where communication should focus. It is in these areas where strategies to address the problem of soil degradation can be developed.     

Erosion modelling approach to simulate the effect of land management options on soil loss by considering catenary soil development and farmers perception

The prevention of soil erosion is one of the most essential requirements for sustainable agriculture in developing countries. In recent years it is widely recognized that more site‐specific approaches are needed to assess variations in erosion susceptibility in order to select the most suitable land management methods for individual hillslope sections. This study quantifies the influence of different land management methods on soil erosion by modelling soil loss for individual soil‐landscape units on a hillslope in Southern Uganda. The research combines a soil erosion modelling approach using the physically based Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)‐model with catenary soil development along hillslopes. Additionally, farmers' perceptions of soil erosion and sedimentation are considered in a hillslope mapping approach. The detailed soil survey confirmed a well‐developed catenary soil sequence along the hillslope and the participatory hillslope mapping exercise proved that farmers can distinguish natural soil property changes using their local knowledge. WEPP‐model simulations show that differences in soil properties, related to the topography along the hillslope, have a significant impact on total soil loss. Shoulder and backslope positions with steeper slope gradients were most sensitive to changes in land management. Furthermore, soil conservation techniques such as residue management and contouring could reduce soil erosion by up to 70 percent on erosion‐sensitive slope sections compared to that under tillage practices presently used at the study site. The calibrated model may be used as a tool to provide quantitative information to farmers regarding more site‐specific land management options. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How to communicate soil expertise more effectively in the information age when aiming at the UN Sustainable Development Goals

Soil use and management play a key role, when maintaining or restoring soil quality, as an estimated 30% of soils in the world suffer from various forms of degradation. Several of the seventeen UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), approved in 2015 by 195 governments, are land‐related, providing a stimulating challenge for soil research. Unfortunately, soil degradation is still prominent, even though decades of research have resulted in restorative and innovative forms of soil management, generating successful case studies all over the world. Why don't enough farmers adopt such research results? Some argue that the problem of soil degradation is mainly socio‐economic rather than technical. However, this is not correct as the soil–water–plant–climate system raises many basic, unresolved questions about soil behaviour. More attention is needed for information sharing and knowledge building to link the research arena with stakeholders and policy makers. This is particularly urgent because the information revolution, which is fundamentally changing attitudes of increasingly critical stakeholders, presents a challenge to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information on Internet and social media. Continuous interaction with land users in the field and sharing knowledge in a joint‐learning mode is needed more than ever, recognizing that different forms of knowledge can contribute to acceptance in the practice of land‐use innovations and lead to realization of land‐related SDGs. Such forms of interaction take much time, which is of limited availability in current research regimes, and implies a need for change. Soil scientists need assistance from communication experts to facilitate interaction processes.     

Changing grazing systems in central north Namibia

Current and historical livestock movement patterns are explored in a semi‐arid communal environment in central–north Namibia, placed in context of increasing population, large‐scale enclosures, increased water supply and changing vegetation. Farmer's knowledge of movements, rangeland potential, vegetation condition and plant indicators was gathered and analysed with various methods such as Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Local rangeland units were mapped with Landsat TM imagery and analysed with a Geographical Information System (GIS). The data suggest that good grazing was previously maintained by low herbivore pressure and frequent fires in a management regime controlled by hunter‐gatherers and limited permanent water supply. Population increase in settled areas starts migration to more fertile land units in previous prime grazing areas causing a conflict between grazing and cropping and a decrease in grazing condition triggering further migration and need for new water supply. Recent large‐scale enclosures are targeting predominantly more fertile land units with the most palatable perennial grass species and water, causing further conflict for communal farmers. Having reached the frontier of the traditional land there is no space for further expansion, resulting in the need to adapt to uncertainty with annual grasses more dependent on rainfall. Livestock movement patterns have changed drastically for large herd owners from transhumance and migration to largely permanent cattle posts. Small herd owners face increasing longer movements between kraals , water points, depending on less suitable and decreased unfenced grazing lands. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.