Cryptococcosis in a llama (Lama glama).

Cryptococcosis was diagnosed in a 17-year-old male llama that had been euthanatized following an acute onset of neurologic disease. Tissues affected included the brain, spinal cord, lung, and kidney. The character of the leukocytic response varied from minimal to pyogranulomatous. Cryptococcosis has not been previously reported in a llama, although the infection has been described in 2 other species of New World camelids. The pathogenesis of cryptococcosis is briefly reviewed.     

Metastatic pulmonary adenocarcinoma in a llama (Lama glama).

An adult female llama with a comminuted fracture of the left femoral head was necropsied. A firm multinodular mass infiltrated skeletal muscle adjacent to the fracture. Multiple, firm, white nodules were in the pulmonary parenchyma and pleura. A single nodule was in the liver. Microscopically, transition from nonneoplastic bronchiolar epithelium to neoplastic epithelium that formed acinar structures was evident at bronchioloalveolar junctions. A diagnosis of pulmonary adenocarcinoma was made. Similar neoplastic tissue was in the liver and in the perifemoral mass. Immunohistochemically, neoplastic cells were positive for pan-cytokeratin, cytokeratin 7, and cytokeratin 5/6 antibodies and negative for vimentin and cytokeratins 8/18 and 20.     

Cecal impaction due to dysautonomia in a llama (Lama glama).

A llama (Lama glama) died after 1 wk of obstipation, lethargy, and rolling. Necropsy showed that the stomach and small intestine were distended with gas and fluid. The cecum was impacted with dry contents and the colon was empty. No gross lesions were found in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract or other organs. Histologic changes consisted of chromatolysis of neurons of autonomic ganglia, enteric plexi, and the accessory cuneate nucleus, consistent with lesions associated with dysautonomia in other domestic animals.     

Keratinizing ameloblastoma in a 9-month-old llama (Lama glama).

A 9-month-old male llama (Lama glama) was presented because of a rapidly growing mass on the right side of the face. Radiographs revealed a marked expansion of the right caudal face region with bone lysis involving the maxilla and the nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic, and palatine bones. Cytologically, the mass consisted of atypical round to polygonal cells with round nuclei and basophilic cytoplasms that formed acini and rows. Histologically, the mass consisted of anastomosing cords and sheets of neoplastic odontogenic epithelial cells embedded in a loose fibrovascular connective tissue. Single layers of peripheral, polarized, palisading, columnar epithelial cells were seen at the edges of some cords. Within the centers of the cords, epithelial cells showed rapid progression to keratin production. The histologic diagnosis was keratinizing ameloblastoma. Ameloblastomas are neoplasms of odontogenic epithelium that tend to be locally aggressive and can cause substantial destruction of bony structures. Because ameloblastomas do not tend to metastasize, they can be successfully treated by complete surgical excision, performed before extensive bony destruction occurs. Ameloblastoma, although expected to be rare, should be onthe list of differential diagnoses for facial swelling in llamas.     

Compressive myelopathy due to intervertebral disk extrusion in a llama (Lama glama).

A 12-year-old intact female llama was euthanized following acute onset of spastic tetraparesis and recumbency with inability to rise. Postmortem examination revealed caudal cervical spinal cord compression due to a mass within the ventral spinal canal arising from the C6-C7 intervertebral disk space and attached to an irregularly thickened annulus fibrosis. On histopathologic examination, the mass was composed of amorphous acellular basophilic to amphophilic material admixed with irregularly arranged collagen bundles. The amorphous material was metachromatic and contained multiple small foci of markedly vacuolated round cells, characteristic of origin from the nucleus pulposus. Severe necrosis of all white matter tracts with astrocytic reaction was present in the overlying spinal cord segment. Ascending and descending Wallerian degeneration and dissecting interstitial astrogliosis were present within white matter tracts above and below the lesion, respectively. The diagnosis was compressive myelopathy due to chronic extrusion of the nucleus pulposus of the C6-C7 intervertebral disk. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of intervertebral disk disease in a camelid.     

Gross and microscopic lesions of polioencephalomalacia in a llama (Lama glama).

A 14-wk-old female llama (Lama glama) developed progressive neurologic disease characterized by stiff gait, circling, decreased mentation, and seizures. At necropsy, lesions were limited to the brain and consisted of bilateral necrosis of the cortical gray matter of the occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex. The primary microscopic alteration was bilateral laminar cerebrocortical necrosis, affecting mainly the deep laminae. Clinical disease, and gross and microscopic lesions were consistent with those of polioencephalomalacia.     

Pestivirus infection in a llama (Lama glama)

Cattle, sheep, goats and a llama (Lama glama) were among several animals that were grazed at our isolation facility. The llama was introduced about 20 months ago and about 12 months later a cow and its calf, both persistently viraemic to bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV), were also introduced. On several occasions during the last 12 months, the llama and the BVDV viraemic cattle were grazed in adjacent paddocks.     

Intraocular nematodiasis in a llama (Lama glama)

This report describes a unique case of presumed migration of Parelaphastrongylus tenuis through the spinal cord into the eye of a llama where it survived and matured within the ocular environment. Blindness of the eye was most likely attributable to migration of the parasite through the central nervous tissue.     

Coccidioides posadasii keratouveitis in a llama (Lama glama)

A 7-year-old male llama was examined for a 3-month history of weight loss, and unilateral keratouveitis. Clinical examination revealed nonulcerative corneal stromal abscessation, corneal vascularization, corneal edema, miosis, posterior synechia, cataract, and fibrin in the anterior chamber of the right eye. The left eye was normal. Histopathology of the right eye following enucleation revealed pyogranulomatous keratouveitis with intralesional fungal spherules consistent with Coccidioides spp. PCR amplification with DNA sequencing confirmed Coccidioides posadasii infection. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of ocular coccidioidomycosis in a llama.     

Arteries of the hindfoot of the llama (Lama glama)

The objective of this study was to describe the arterial distribution of the hindfoot of the llama (Lama glama). Ten adult llamas, preserved in 6% formalin solution at 0 degree C, were dissected. The arterial system was perfused with a solution of 14% coloured plaster; the venous system was perfused with a solution of 17% coloured industrial gelatin. Angiographies were also obtained. In the llama, the arterial distribution is of the saphenous type and this simple sort of irrigation could be used as a didactic model. The caudal branch of the saphenous artery divides into the small lateral plantar artery and the larger medial plantar artery, which continues as the plantar common digital artery III, and it is the main blood supply of the hindfoot. The dorsal pedal artery is underdeveloped and the perforating tarsal artery does not exist in this species. The plantar common digital artery III divides into the plantar proper digital II, III and IV. Branches from the plantar proper digital artery III supply the digits. We compared the arterial distribution of the hindfoot of the llama with that of other domestic animals including the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius).     

Immune response of the llama (Lama glama) to tetanus toxoid vaccination

An ELISA was developed to measure serum concentrations of tetanus toxoid-specific immunoglobulins. The titers obtained with this assay were compatible with those obtained by the standard mouse toxin-neutralization test. Serum samples from 123 llamas were analyzed for ELISA titers to tetanus toxoid. Of the 82 vaccinated adults, 75 (91%) had titers greater than or equal to 1:50. The vaccination status and titers of weanlings and juveniles (3 to 12 months old) varied; of the 21 vaccinated, 17 (81%) had titers greater than or equal to 1:50 and 7 of 9 (78%) unvaccinated llamas had titers less than 1:50. The ELISA titers of unvaccinated llamas less than 8 weeks old (crias) were matched with the maternal titers. All crias with titers less than 1:50 had dams with titers greater than or equal to 1:50.     

Physical characteristics of gastrointestinal content of llama (Lama glama)

Changes in digesta dry matter (DM) and mean digesta particle size (MPS) along the gastrointestinal tract are well known in ruminants, but not in camelids. We collected digesta from the dorsal (d) and ventral (v) first forestomach compartment (C1), the second forestomach compartment (C2), three proximal segments and the subsequent glandular part of the third compartment (C3A‐D), the caecum and the faeces twelve llamas (Lama glama). DM analysis indicates the presence of digesta stratification in the C1, the presence of fluid in the C2 to facilitate the sorting function of this compartment, the fluid‐absorbing function of the proximal parts of the C3, the secretion of enzymes and digestive acids in the C3D, and the water‐resorbing function of the lower intestinal tract. These findings illustrate the functional resemblance between the gastrointestinal tract of camelids and cattle‐like ruminants (C1 equivalent to the rumen with stratified contents, C2 to the reticulum, C3A/B/C to the omasum and C3D to the abomasum). MPS analysis revealed a progressive reduction in MPS from the C1 to the distal C3. This gradual transition is different from the clear‐cut threshold in ruminants between the reticulum and the omasum and had so far only been described in dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius). These findings indicate that regardless of the convergent property of rumination and resemblance of general mechanisms involved in contents stratification and particle sorting, differences between ruminants and camelids exist that could be interpreted as a more efficient functionality of the ruminant forestomach.     

Surgical treatment of uterine torsion in a llama (Lama glama)

A multiparous llama was presented because of failure to proceed into the second stage of labor. Clockwise uterine torsion and a live fetus were identified by rectal and vaginal examinations. A cesarean operation was elected because of the prolonged first stage of labor and lack of cervical dilatation. Anesthesia was induced with a 10% guaifenesin solution administered intravenously via a pressurized pump followed by intubation and maintenance with 2% halothane. A ventral midline surgical approach exposed the uterus and the fetus was removed through a uterotomy. The placenta was manually stripped from the myometrial edges of the incision and the margins were oversewn using a continuous interlocking pattern. The uterus was then closed using a continuous Utrecht pattern and the uterus rotated 180 degrees back to its normal anatomical position. The abdomen was closed in 3 layers. Recovery of the llama was uneventful with the male cria able to nurse 6 hours post-operatively. Placental expulsion occurred approximately 48 hours after fetal removal.     

Growth characteristics of the llama (Lama glama) from birth to 12 months old

This study has characterised the growth patterns of the llama (Lama glama) from birth to 12 months old. Bodyweight growth was described as a function of age. As a means of predicting bodyweight, equations were developed which correlated bodyweight with specific body measurements. Regression analysis revealed a strong positive correlation of logtransformed measurements of thoracic circumference and height with bodyweight. Thoracic circumference (measured in cm) was a good predictor of bodyweight from the equation: bodyweight (kg) = (8.7 x 10(-4)) x circumference2.46 (r2 = 0.91).     

Congenital cataracts and persistent hyaloid vasculature in a llama (Lama glama)

A 9-month-old llama was evaluated for apparent blindness. Bilateral cataracts were diagnosed and cataract surgery was performed on the right eye. At the time of surgery persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous, persistent hyperplastic tunica vasculosa lentis, and a persistent hyaloid artery were observed. Prior to surgery Power Doppler ultrasound revealed a patent tunica vasculosa lentis OS. Despite reports of a poor success rate for llama cataract surgery, through use of careful tissue handling, phacoemulsification, viscoelastic endothelial protectants, anti-inflammatories, and BSS-Plus irrigating solution, vision was successfully restored in both eyes of the llama.     

Clinical reference values for serum protein electrophoresis for the llama (Lama glama)

Serum protein electrophoresis was performed on 71 clinically healthy juvenile and adult llamas (6 juvenile males, 7 juvenile females, 25 adult males, 13 adult females, and 20 pregnant females) to determine normal serum protein concentrations. Values were reported for each of the 5 groups because the groups were not homogeneous in all 8 peaks. Although the values reported here may serve as reference values for adults, they represent only a guideline for the juveniles because of the limited number of animals in each of these groups.