引入平流影响的蒸散估算

本文用波文比--能量平衡观测资料计算的麦田潜热，验证了引入平流影响的平流--干燥蒸散估算模型，结果表明，平流--干燥模型能较好地模拟麦田蒸散潜热日变化过程。该模型只需一个高度的气象资料，有推广应用前景。     

Estimating uncertainties in individual eddy covariance flux measurements: A comparison of methods and a proposed new method

We present a review of four methods that are currently and formerly used to estimate random flux measurement uncertainties in eddy covariance instrument systems, examining their theoretical basis. In our review, we illustrate a few of the strengths and weaknesses of each, paying particular attention to the explicit and implicit assumptions made. We then evaluate the practicality, ease of use, and relative performance for the methods reviewed. We also describe a new method of random flux uncertainty estimation that is designed to only be sensitive to random instrument noise, and compare its predictions with other methods on both real and synthetic data. We conclude that our new method is a good complement to the others examined. We also suggest that when our proposed technique is used with one or more of the other methods, new information is obtained about how contributions to the total uncertainty are distributed among their various causes.     

Latent heat flux estimation in clear sky days over Indian agroecosystems using noontime satellite remote sensing data

A simplified evaporative fraction (Λ) based single-source energy balance scheme was tested with moderate resolution (1 km) noontime satellite observations to evaluate clear sky latent heat flux (λE) estimates over diverse agricultural landscapes. This approach uses two-dimensional (2D) scatter between land surface temperature (LST) and albedo to determine Λ. The operational utility of this scheme was demonstrated for estimating regional evapotranspiration and consumptive water use during rabi (November to April) crop growing season to predict pre-harvest wheat yield (error within 15.9% of reported mean) using time series data. The existence of triangular relations between Λ and LAI (leaf area index) or NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) was found with basal line (hypotenuse) linearly coupled with LAI or NDVI at low level of surface soil wetness. The analysis of diurnal course of in situ Λ proved the validity of constant-Λ hypothesis over pure, uniform, homogeneous crop canopies but showed irregular and wave-like patterns over heterogeneous, mixed crop canopies. The root mean square error (RMSE) of noontime and daytime average λE estimates with respect to in situ λE measurements were also smaller over homogeneous agricultural canopies (41 and 23 W m⁻²) with correlation coefficients (r) 0.94 and 0.96, respectively, from 135 clear sky datasets as compared to RMSE over heterogeneous ones (59 and 28 W m⁻² with r = 0.66 and 0.82, respectively from 22 datasets). The intercomparison with another Λ based approach (LST–NDVI 2D scatter) showed the supremacy of Λ determined from LST–albedo 2D scatter. The efficiency of LST–NDVI scatter was better during the dry down or water limited phases of crop growth only. The uncertainties of λE estimates were attributed to errors in core radiation budget inputs, relative loss of conservativeness of Λ due to canopy heterogeneity, and the inherent limitations of the single-source approach. There is further scope to reduce present λE uncertainties by combining the new findings on Λ (LST–albedo scatter)–NDVI triangular relations, diurnal Λ and two-source radiation budget.     

Edge effects of an invasive species across a natural ecological boundary

Natural habitats adjacent to human-modified areas often suffer edge effects stemming from physical disturbance, elevated predator densities, or invasive species. Although seldom documented, detrimental edge effects can also occur at natural ecological boundaries. Here I examine the spatial pattern and ecological effects of a biological invasion at well-delineated and abrupt edges between riparian corridors and coastal sage scrub at 10 sites in southwestern California. The invasive Argentine ant Linepithema humile thrives in moist riparian corridors but decreases greatly in number with increasing distance into adjacent dry scrub habitats. As L. humile numbers decrease, both the number of native ant workers and the number of native ant species captured in pitfall traps increase. Argentine ants appear to suppress native ants within at least 50 m of riparian corridors, but these effects diminish to undetectable levels by 200 m. At comparable uninvaded sites neither the number of native ant workers nor the number of native ant species captured in pitfall traps varies significantly across riparian-scrub edges. Areas subject to this edge effect may be sinks both for native ants and for organisms that depend on them for food or services. In general edge effects occurring at natural boundaries should receive increased attention as they might disrupt ecosystems not greatly altered by human activity.     

ECOWAT—A model for ecosystem evapotranspiration estimation

In recent years, the availability of near real-time and forecast standardized reference evapotranspiration (E₀) has increased dramatically. Use of the E₀ information in conjunction with calibration coefficients that adjust for differences between the vegetation and the reference surface provides a method to greatly improve the estimates of actual evapotranspiration (E_a) from landscapes (or ecosystems). Difficulties in estimating evapotranspiration (ET) of well-watered vegetation in an ecosystem depend on local advection and edge effects, wide variations in radiation resulting from undulating terrain, wind blockage or funnelling, and differences in temperature due to spatial variation in radiation, wind, etc. Estimating the ET of an ecosystem that is water stressed is even further complicated because of stomatal closure and reduced transpiration. The Ecosystem Water Program (ECOWAT) was developed to help improve estimates of E_a of ecosystems by accounting for microclimate, vegetation type, plant density, and water stress. The first step in estimating E_a is to calculate E₀ using monthly climate data from one representative weather station in the study area. Then, local microclimate data are used to determine a standardized reference evapotranspiration for the local microclimate (E_m). The ratio K_m = E_m/E₀ is calculated and applied as a microclimate correction factor to estimate E_m. The product of E_m and a vegetation coefficient (K_v = E_v/E_m) is used to estimate the evapotranspiration of the ecosystem vegetation (E_v) under well-watered conditions with a full-canopy cover within the same microclimate. Next, a coefficient for plant density (K_d), which is based on the percentage ground cover, is used to adjust the full-canopy E_v to the evapotranspiration of a sparse canopy from a well-watered ecosystem (E_w). A stress (K_s) coefficient, which varies between 1.0 with no stress to 0.0 with full stress, is determined as a function of available water in the root zone. The predicted actual ecosystem evapotranspiration (E_p) is estimated as E_p = E_w × K_s. In this paper, we present how the ECOWAT model works and how it performs when the predicted actual evapotranspiration (E_p) is compared with measured actual evapotranspiration (E_a) collected in several Mediterranean ecosystems (three in Italy and two in California) over a number of years. The potential use of ECOWAT in integrated fire danger systems is discussed.     

高寒矮嵩草草甸地面热源强度及与生物量关系的初步研究

在青藏高原海北高寒矮嵩草草甸地区,依据2002年涡度相关法观测的能量平衡各分量资料和6-10月植物地上、地下生物量测定值,分析了高寒矮嵩草草甸近地表热量平衡、地面热源强度的变化特征,讨论了地面热源强度与植物生物量季节变化过程中的相互关系。结果表明:在青藏高原海北高寒矮嵩草草甸地区,年内地面均为热源,热源强度季节变化明显,地面热源强度年平均为88.5 W/m2;地上生物量季节变化与热源强度具有显著的正相关关系,而地下生物量季节变化与热源强度关系不明显。     

不同氮营养冬小麦冠层光谱红边特征分析

利用FieldSpec FR2500光谱仪测定了不同氮素处理冬小麦冠层光谱,分析其红边特征变化规律及与农学成分的相关关系。结果表明,波长550 nm、680 nm、980 nm、1100 nm与350～680 nm和750～1100 nm可作为氮素营养诊断的敏感特征点与波段范围。随着施氮量的提高,拔节期、抽穗期以及灌浆期的红边位置（REP）、红谷位置（Lo）与光谱反射率一阶微分极大值（FD_Max）均增大,红边宽度（Lwidth）则有减小的趋势。总体上看,施氮与无氮处理在整个生育期均存在较大差异,施氮处理之间差异较小。冠层反射光谱的红边位置、红谷位置、随生育期向长波方向移动,呈现红移现象;从抽穗期开始逐渐减小,呈现蓝移现象。冬小麦红边参数中红边位置与农学组分之间的相关性优于其他参数,除与地上部生物量正相关显著外,与叶面积指数、叶含水率、叶绿素含量、叶可溶性蛋白含量、叶鲜重、叶含氮量均呈正相关且达到极显著水平。红谷位置则与叶面积指数、叶含水率、叶绿素含量、叶鲜重以及SPAD值呈极显著正相关;与可溶性蛋白呈显著正相关。红边宽度与叶面积指数、叶含水率、叶氮含量、叶绿素含量以及叶鲜重均呈极显著正相关;与可溶性蛋白含量呈显著正相关。反射率一阶导数极大值与叶面积指数、叶含水率、叶鲜重呈极显著正相关,与叶含氮量极显著负相关。通过红边参数与农学组分稳定良好的数学关系,可以对农学组分进行预测估算。     

Herpetofauna diversity and microenvironment correlates across a pasture-edge-interior ecotone in tropical rainforest fragments in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve of Veracruz, Mexico

We evaluated the relationship between amphibian and reptile diversity and microhabitat dynamics along pasture-edge-interior ecotones in a tropical rainforest in Veracruz, Mexico. To evaluate the main correlation patterns among microhabitat variables and species composition and richness, 14 ecotones were each divided into three habitats (pasture, forest edge and forest interior) with three transects per habitat, and sampled four times between June 2003 and May 2004 using equal day and night efforts. We measured 12 environmental variables describing the microclimate, vegetation structure, topography and distance to forest edge and streams.After sampling 126 transects (672 man-hours effort) we recorded 1256 amphibians belonging to 21 species (pasture: 12, edge: 14, and interior: 13 species), and 623 reptiles belonging to 33 species (pasture: 11, edge: 25, and interior: 22 species). There was a difference in species composition between pasture and both forest edge and interior habitats. A high correlation between distance to forest edge and temperature, understorey density, canopy cover, leaf litter cover, and leaf litter depth was found. There was also a strong relationship between the composition of amphibian and reptile ensembles and the measured environmental variables. The most important variables related to amphibian and reptile ensembles were canopy cover, understorey density, leaf litter cover and temperature.Based on amphibian and reptile affinity for the habitats along the ecotone, species were classified into five ensembles (generalist, pasture, forest, forest edge and forest interior species). We detected six species that could indicate good habitat quality of forest interior and their disappearance may be an indication of habitat degradation within a fragment, or that a fragment is not large enough to exclude edge effects. Different responses to spatial and environmental gradients and different degrees of tolerance to microclimatic changes indicated that each ensemble requires a different conservation strategy. We propose to maintain in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve the forest remnants in the lowlands that have gentler slopes and a deep cover of leaf litter, a dense understorey, and high relative humidity and low temperature, to buffer the effects of edge related environmental changes and the invasion of species from the matrix.     

The use of lysimeter data for the test of two soil–water balance models: A case study

Two soil–water balance models were tested by a comparison of simulated with measured daily rates of actual evapotranspiration, soil water storage, groundwater recharge, and capillary rise. These rates were obtained from twelve weighable lysimeters with three different soils and two different lower boundary conditions for the time period from January 1, 1996 to December 31, 1998. In that period, grass vegetation was grown on all lysimeters. These lysimeters are located in Berlin‐Dahlem, Germany. One model calculated the soil water balance using the Richards equation. The other one used a capacitance approach. Both models used the same modified Penman formula for the estimation of potential evapotranspiration and the same simple empirical vegetation model for the calculation of transpiration, interception, and evaporation. The comparisons of simulated with measured model outputs were analyzed using the modeling‐efficiency index IA and the root mean squared error RMSE. At some lysimeters, the uncalibrated application of both models led to an underestimation of cumulative and annual rates of groundwater recharge and capillary rise, despite a good simulation quality in terms of IA and RMSE. A calibration of soil‐hydraulic and vegetation parameters such as maximum rooting depth resulted in a better fit between simulated and observed cumulative and annual rates of groundwater recharge and capillary rise, but in some cases also decreased the simulation quality of both models in terms of IA and RMSE. The results of this calibration indicated that, in addition to a precise determination of the soil water‐retention functions, vegetation parameters such as rooting depth should also be observed. Without such information, the rooting depth is a calibration parameter. However, in some cases, the uncalibrated application of both models also led to an acceptable fit between measured and simulated model outputs.     

小波变换的模极大值在图像边缘检测中的应用研究

边缘检测在图像处理中有着重要的作用。依据canny算子的核心思想,运用小波分析技术,提出了一种基于小波变换的模极大值边缘检测算法。仿真结果表明：该算法能提取图像较弱的边缘,有较好的去噪效果,且边缘有较强的连续性,优于传统的边缘检测算子。     

In vitro binding of germanium to proteins of rice shoots

The possibility of in vitro binding between proteins of rice shoots and germanium (Ge) was investigated. The proteins in mixtures of aqueous extracts of rice shoots and radioactive germanium (⁶⁸GeO₂) were fractionated. The binding of radioactivity to the proteins was observed even after 5 successive fractionation steps from the original mixtures. At the final fractionation step using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, a constant proportionality between protein concentration and associated radioactivity was found in most samples although not all. These results indicate that the binding of ⁸⁸Ge to proteins is not due to the simple adsorption by proteins.     

三江平原稻田能量通量研究

基于三江平原稻田2005~2007年5~10月涡度相关通量观测数据, 分析了该区稻田能量通量的日变化、季节变化和能量分配特征以及能量平衡状况。结果表明: 三江平原稻田净辐射和潜热通量日变化均表现为明显的单峰特征, 感热通量日变化在水稻发育进入成熟期后才较明显, 而土壤热通量在水稻整个发育期内日变化特征都不明显。稻田净辐射季节变化特征显著, 6月下旬至7月上旬达到最大值18~20 MJ·m^-2·d^-1。潜热通量季节变化与净辐射同步, 最大值为13~19 MJ·m^-2·d^-1。相比之下感热通量较小, 观测期间变化于-3.90~ 3.94 MJ·m^-2·d^-1, 且没有明显的季节变化。5~10月土壤热通量呈下降趋势, 变化于-2.67~3.62 MJ·m^-2·d^-1。三江平原地区稻田能量分配特征明显, 潜热通量占净辐射的比例(LE/Rn) 5~10月平均值为0.67, 表明净辐射大部分以潜热通量形式所消耗, 但生长旺季LE/Rn略大于生长季初期和末期。感热通量占净辐射的比例(Hs/Rn)的季节变化特征与LE/Rn比值相反, 观测期间平均值为0.10。这导致波文比在水稻生长旺季较小而在初期和末期较大。5~10月土壤热通量占净辐射的比例(G/Rn)呈逐渐下降趋势, 其月平均值由5月的0.14下降到10月的-0.08。线性回归法和能量平衡比率均表明三江平原稻田能量明显不闭合, 2005、2006年5~10月能量不闭合度分别为22%和16%, 而2007年能量“过闭合”, 能量平衡比率平均值为1.07。     

Evaluation of measurement accuracy and comparison of two new and three traditional net radiometers

Net radiation (R_n) is the sum of the radiant energy at the Earth's surface and is a major component of the surface energy balance. However, R_n is difficult to measure accurately, and multiple instruments are available to measure it. Two new instruments (Hukseflux Thermal Sensors B.V., model NR01; Kipp & Zonen B.V., model CNR 2) have been released within the past two years. We compared these models, two less-expensive older models (Kipp & Zonen B.V., model NR-Lite; Radiation and Energy Balance Systems, Inc., model Q*7.1), and a more expensive older model (Kipp & Zonen B.V., model CNR 1) over a uniform turfgrass surface for 33 days in mid-summer. Three replicates of each radiometer were included in the study (except for the CNR 1). The instruments that independently measure the four components of R_n (models CNR 1 and NR01) were typically the most accurate. Incoming shortwave measurements from the four component instruments were compared to a reference pyranometer, and outgoing longwave measurements were compared to infrared measurements of surface temperature. The differences from the reference pyranometer and surface temperature measurements were typically 2% or less. There was a difference of approximately 5% in incoming longwave measurements between these two radiometer models. This is likely due to differences in calibration approaches, which are discussed. This emphasizes the need for standardization of longwave calibration methods and establishment of a world reference for longwave radiation. The instruments that do not separate shortwave and longwave radiation into component measurements (net all-wave radiometers, models NR-Lite and Q*7.1) were generally the least accurate, and had offsetting day and night differences that reduced daily total R_n differences relative to the reference. The CNR 2 measures net shortwave and net longwave, and is an intermediate between a four component instrument and a net all-wave instrument. The R_n measurement accuracy of the CNR 2 typically fell between that of the two groups. Differences among radiometers tended to be larger at night than during the day, indicating higher variability in longwave measurements. An inversion (flip) test in the field showed the NR-Lites and Q*7.1s had well matched detectors, however two of the three replicate CNR 2s had mismatch errors greater than 5%. This becomes important for measurements over non-vegetated surfaces. The data presented here should be helpful in selecting the most cost effective instrument for a given application.     

Diversity of soil nematodes across a Mediterranean ecotone

As an indicator of ecological maturity, we have analyzed the nematode community of an erosion-prone Mediterranean macchia and a pine stand within it. Species richness, abundance, diversity and maturity indexes have been measured from a number of standardized soil samples taken along parallel transects laid across the boundary between the pine stand and the macchia. Results of multifactor analysis on these data show three distinct nematode communities of different species composition. The intermediate nematode community (ecotone) is not a mixture of elements of adjacent communities (pine stand and macchia), thus suggesting the existence of an ecotone-specific community beyond the expected boundary effect.     

表层有效土壤水分参数化及冠层下土面蒸发模拟

通过观测田间微气象数据、土壤表层水分变化状况及荞麦作物冠层下土面蒸发等资料,引进一个表面体积含水率的函数,构建了基于表层有效土壤水分的土壤蒸发模型。该模型包含了土面蒸发的2个过程:水蒸气从土壤孔隙中扩散到地表面及水蒸气由地表面传输到大气中。模型中表层有效土壤水分参数不仅取决于表层土壤含水状况,而且受风速影响。采用波文比能量平衡法及微型蒸发器观测荞麦地实际蒸腾蒸发量及冠层下土面蒸发的变化规律,并验证模型精度。结果表明,所构建模型可以成功预测冠层下土面蒸发,其平均相对误差为13.5%。该研究对于实现土壤蒸发及作物蒸腾的分离估算,减少无效水分消耗具有重要意义。     

Automated measurement of canopy stomatal conductance based on infrared temperature

Decreased water uptake closes stomates, which reduces transpiration and increases leaf temperature. The leaf or canopy temperature has long been used to make an empirical estimate of plant water stress. However, with a few supplemental measurements and application of biophysical principles, infrared measurement of canopy temperature can be used to calculate canopy stomatal conductance (g_C), a physiological variable derived from the energy balance for a plant canopy. Calculation of g_C requires an accurate measurement of canopy temperature and an estimate of plant height, but all of the other measurements are available on automated weather stations. Canopy stomatal conductance provides a field-scale measurement of daily and seasonal stomatal response to prevailing soil water and atmospheric conditions, and facilitates a comparison of models that scale conductance from single leaves (measured with porometers) to canopies. A sensitivity analysis of the input measurements/estimates showed g_C is highly sensitive to small changes in canopy and air temperature, and less sensitive to the other required measurements (relative humidity, net radiation, wind speed, and plant canopy height). The measurement of g_C becomes increasingly sensitive to all of the component factors as the conditions become cloudier, cooler, and more humid. We determined g_C for alfalfa and turfgrass by making the necessary environmental measurements and coupling them with a two-source (plant canopy layer and soil layer) energy balance model. We then compared these g_C values to maximum single leaf values scaled-up to the canopy level (g_CP, defined as potential canopy stomatal conductance herein) for the two crops. For both crops, g_C matched g_CP within approximately 10% after irrigation. The turfgrass g_C measurements were also compared to mean single leaf values measured with a porometer. At mid-day, g_C values were typically about double the single leaf values. Because this approach for determining g_C allows continuous, non-contact measurement, it has considerable potential for coupling with measurements of soil moisture to better understand plant–soil water relations. It also has potential for use in precision drought stress and irrigation scheduling.     

A variable edge effect on trees of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, and its bearing on measurement parameters

With tropical forests under increased pressure from fragmentation and nascent effects of climate change, it is imperative to reliably predict change for timely reduction of impacts. This depends on measuring the right variables and analyzing them in ways that best detect change. I compared the usefulness of density, species richness, species diversity, and size in detecting edge penetration; and other parameters in revealing edge effect on tree species in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Trees were sampled in 104 1 km edge-interior transects set around the entire park. Density and species richness were better indicators of edge-width than girth size and diversity measurements, both showing edge penetration as most intense within 300 m, although effect was detectable up to 900-1000 m. This estimate compared closely with an earlier estimate of 300-350 m obtained using incidences of resource harvest. Among other measures, measures of tree species abundance and frequency showed significant response to the edge by both early succession and primary forest species; while analyses of density showed edge response primarily by forest interior species. Parameters of tree size and their derivatives showed edge response by the lowest number of species. These results suggest that to measure edge effects reliably, it is important to select the right parameters.     

Decoupling of air flow above and in plant canopies and gravity waves affect micrometeorological estimates of net scalar exchange

Turbulence within open canopies is shown to undergo a dramatic change in character during the transition from convective to stable conditions. In convective conditions the flow within the canopy is coupled through turbulent exchange to the flow aloft. As the transition proceeds, the within- and above-canopy flows decouple and vertically coherent waves form within the canopy. The intensity of above-canopy turbulence is not a good indicator of flow decoupling. Within-canopy waves can lead to large random error in the measurement of the change of storage and the advection terms in the mass balance equation. More importantly, errors associated with sampling over incomplete wave cycles will inevitably be combined with true advective flux divergences at non-ideal sites. Quantitative estimates of likely errors on storage of heat and CO₂ within the canopy are presented.