Environmental controls on photosynthetic production and ecosystem respiration in semi-arid grasslands of Mongolia

The Mongolian steppe zone comprises a major part of East Asian grasslands. The objective of this study was to separately evaluate the quantitative dependencies of gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (R_eco) on the environmental variables of temperature, moisture, radiation, and plant biomass in a semi-arid grassland ecosystem. We determined GPP and R_eco using transparent and opaque closed chambers in a grassland dominated by Poaceae species in central Mongolia during five periods: July 2004, May 2005, July 2005, September 2005, and June 2006. Values of GPP were linearly related to live aboveground biomass (AGB) enclosed by the chamber. The amount of GPP per unit ground area differed among the study periods, whereas GPP normalized by the amount of AGB did not differ significantly among the periods, suggesting that plant production per unit green biomass did not depend on the phenological stage. GPP/AGB fit well a rectangular hyperbolic light–response curve for all the study periods. When the air and soil were dry, considerable reduction in GPP was observed. The GPP/AGB ratio was also expressed as individual functions of air temperature, vapor pressure deficit, and volumetric soil water content. R_eco was exponentially related to the soil temperature and the relationship was modified by soil moisture. The amount of R_eco and its temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀) declined with decreasing soil moisture. Sharp increases of R_eco after rainfall events were observed. The values of R_eco, even including the rain-induced pulses, were expressed well as a bivariate function of soil temperature and soil moisture near the soil surface.     

The spatial extent of termite influences on herbivore browsing in an African savanna

Termite mounds form islands of fertility in savanna landscapes and create foraging hotspots for herbivores, but the magnitude and spatial extent of these influences is unknown. We mapped terrain, termite mound and woody vegetation three-dimensional (3-D) structure at 56 cm resolution across a large-scale (254 ha), long-term (34 years) herbivore exclusion experiment in the Kruger National Park, with the Carnegie Airborne Observatory (CAO). We compared vegetation 3-D structure in areas protected from herbivores with those accessible to herbivores, both on termite mounds and in the landscape matrix between termite mounds. Termite mound density was 1.1 ha⁻¹ across the study area and mound size did not differ between protected and accessible areas. Woody vegetation canopy cover was ∼100% greater on protected than accessible mounds, but was only ∼20% greater in the protected inter-mound matrix when compared to the accessible matrix. Woody canopy height class distributions differed significantly between protected and accessible areas, with the tallest vegetation (>10 m) occurring on protected termite mounds. The impacts of herbivore browsing were evident at distances of up to 20 m from termite mound centres. Spatial analysis of mound distribution revealed that the sphere of termite mound influence constitutes ∼20% of the total landscape. Termite influences on herbivore browsing operate at scales much larger than the spatial extent of their mound building activities.     

Geomorphic estimates of the stability of a uranium mill tailings containment cover: Nabarlek,Northern Territory,Australia

The geomorphic stability of the cover (cap) over the pit of Nabarlek Uranium Mine in Arnhem Land, Northern Australia, is important because radon gas and other long-lived radio-nuclides arising from mill tailings must be contained for long periods. The primary agents of denudation in the region's seasonally wet tropical environment of low relief are rainwash, overland flow, rilling and gullying. Other agents of erosion are of less concern, although biogenic agents of erosion (e.g. termites and windthrow) may enhance fluvial activity. A combination of modelling, using the Universal Soil Loss Equation, and analogue estimates of denudation and thresholds of rilling and gullying from areas with similar geology, topography and climate are used to estimate the stability of the Nabarlek cover. Denudation rates are conservatively estimated at less than 100mm ky⁻¹. It is suggested that with some minor design modifications the cover will retain its integrity for several thousand years.     

太行山前平原近40年降水的变化趋 势及其对作物生产的影响

降水是作物生产的主要限制因素,在干旱半干旱地区尤为重要。通过对太行山山前平原近46年降水量资料分析表明,太行山山前平原降水量在以每年5.1mm速度下降,其中夏玉米季下降比较严重。而冬小麦季的灌溉需水量是夏玉米季的2倍。田间试验结果表明,旱作条件下作物产量与降水量关系密切,而非充分灌溉条件下作物产量的变异性不大,今后应提倡合理灌溉。     

A sub-continental scale living laboratory: Spatial patterns of savanna vegetation over a rainfall gradient in northern Australia

Savanna landscapes across north Australia are characterised by limited topographic variation, and in the Northern Territory, by a relatively constant decline in rainfall with distance inland. The North Australian Tropical Transect (NATT) traverses this 1000 km gradient of largely intact vegetation which provides an ideal ‘living laboratory’ and framework to investigate the influence of vegetation structural and floristic change and climate drivers on land-atmosphere exchange at a regional scale. We conducted a multidisciplinary program examining carbon, water and energy fluxes as a function of climate and vegetation change along a sub-continental environmental gradient. Initial findings are reported in this Special Issue. During the program, an intensive field campaign was undertaken during the dry season to characterise vegetation and soil properties of eight flux tower sites used to describe spatial and temporal dynamics of fluxes across this gradient. This paper provides an overview of the savanna landscapes of north Australia detailing vegetation structural and physiological change along this gradient. Above-ground woody biomass, stem density, overstorey LAI and canopy height declined along sites that spanned an 1100 mm annual rainfall gradient. Biomass ranged from 35 to 5 t C ha⁻¹ with dry season LAI ranging from ∼1 to 0.05 across savanna sites both intact and cleared for grazing. Across open-forest and woodland savanna, basal area ranged from 9.7 to 5.3 m² ha⁻¹. While structural change was significant and correlated with rainfall, leaf scale physiological properties (maximal photosynthesis, V_cmax, c_i/c_a, light use efficiency) of the dominant woody species showed little variation, despite the significant environmental gradient. It is likely that changes in structural properties dominate spatial patterns of flux as opposed to physiological plasticity or species differences along this gradient.     

Diurnal and seasonal variations in CH4 flux from termite mounds in tropical savannas of the Northern Territory, Australia

Termites are estimated to contribute between <5 and 19% of the global methane (CH₄) emissions. These estimates have large uncertainties because of the limited number of field-based studies and species studied, as well as issues of diurnal and seasonal variations. We measured CH₄ fluxes from four common mound-building termite species (Microcerotermes nervosus, M. serratus, Tumulitermes pastinator and Amitermes darwini) diurnally and seasonally in tropical savannas in the Northern Territory, Australia. Our results showed that there were significant diel and seasonal variations of CH₄ emissions from termite mounds and we observed large species specific differences. On a diurnal basis, CH₄ fluxes were least at the coolest time of the day (∼07.00 h) and greatest at the warmest (∼15.00 h) for all species for both wet and dry seasons. We observed a strong and significant positive correlation between CH₄ flux and mound temperature for all species. A mound excavation experiment demonstrated that the positive temperature effect on CH₄ emissions was not related to termite movement in and out of a mound but probably a direct effect of temperature on methanogenesis in the termite gut. Fluxes in the wet season were 5-26-fold greater than those in the dry season. A multiple stepwise regression model including mound temperature and mound water content described 70-99% of the seasonal variations in CH₄ fluxes for different species. CH₄ fluxes from M. nervosus, which was the most abundant mound-building termite species at our sites, had significantly lower fluxes than the other three species measured. Our data demonstrate that CH₄ flux estimates could result in large under- or over-estimation of CH₄ emissions from termites if the diurnal, seasonal and species specific variations are not accounted for, especially when flux data are extrapolated to landscape scales.     

Erosion and soil productivity in Australia and New Zealand

Soil erosion assumes a different form in Australia and New Zealand. Sheet, rill and gully erosion are common in eastern Australia and wind erosion in the dry cropland areas. In New Zealand, mass movement dominates the erosion landscape but other kinds, including wind erosion, do occur. It is unclear how much of the mass movement is a natural phenomenon and how much is human-induced. In either case, it causes long-term reductions in soil productivity. A landmark analysis of the soil productivity loss due to land degradation was conducted by the Australian state of New South Wales. Water erosion was a greater problem than wind erosion, but soil structure deterioration was more costly than either kind of erosion.     

Photosynthetic physiology of eucalypts along a sub-continental rainfall gradient in northern Australia

Leaf-level photosynthetic parameters of species in the closely related genera Eucalyptus and Corymbia were assessed along a strong rainfall gradient in northern Australia. Both instantaneous gas exchange measurements and leaf carbon isotope discrimination indicated little variation in intercellular CO₂ concentrations during photosynthesis (c_i) in response to a decrease in mean annual precipitation from ∼1700 mm to ∼300 mm. Correlation between stomatal conductance and photosynthetic capacity contributed toward the maintenance of relatively constant c_i among the sampled leaves, when assessed at ambient CO₂ concentration and photon irradiance similar to full sunlight. Leaf mass per area was the most plastic leaf trait along the rainfall gradient, showing a linear increase in response to decreasing mean annual precipitation. The maximum Rubisco carboxylation velocity, V_cmax, expressed on a leaf-area basis, showed a modest increase in response to decreasing rainfall. This modest increase in V_cmax was associated with the strongly expressed increase in leaf mass per area. These results suggest that variation in ecosystem-level gas exchange during the dry season in north-Australian savannas will likely be dominated by changes in leaf area index in response to increasing aridity, rather than by changes in photosynthetic performance per unit leaf area.     

海河低平原盐渍区土壤养分空间变异性研究

应用地统计学方法分析研究海河低平原盐渍涝洼地2700m×2100m尺度土壤6个主要养分属性和全盐量的空间变异结构结果表明,在轮荒、撩荒半自然状态下土壤全N 、速效氮、速效磷、速效钾及有机质等含量的空间变异性存在着良好的半方差结构,而全P 半方差结构尚难理想的确定.半方差曲线图遵从指数和球函数等理论模型,最大相关距离分别在340～1173m,结构方差在基台值中所占比例均较大,达40%以上.     

Impact of residue characteristics on phosphorus availability in West African moist savanna soils

The role of residue characteristics in enhancing the availability of P was investigated in a greenhouse study using two soils from the northern Guinea savanna (NGS) and four from the derived savanna (DS) zones of the West African moist savanna. Eight organic residues of varying C-to-P ratio were used and maize ( Zea mays) was grown for 7 weeks. The effect of the organic residues on P availability (measured as resin P and maize P accumulation) differed among the soils. On average, the increase in resin P, calculated as {[(soil+residue)–control]/(control)×100}, was between 8% (Davié, DS) and 355% (Danayamaka, NGS). Maize P accumulation was increased by ca. 11% in Davié and Niaouli (DS) soils and 600% in Danayamaka soil. The increase in maize total dry matter yield (DMY) ranged from 2% to 649%. Residues with C-to-P ratio >200 produced lower DMY than those with lower ratios. Residue organic P (Po) extractable with 0.2 N H₂SO₄ (acid-Po) accounted for 92% ( P =0.0001) of the variation in DMY in a step-wise regression with residue parameters as independent variables and mean DMY as the dependent variable. The residue Po extractable with 0.5 M NaHCO₃ (HCO₃-Po) correlated significantly with DMY in Danayamaka and Davié soils, and with P accumulation in Danayamaka soil. The relationships between the residue Po and DMY might imply that Po fractions in decomposing residues contribute to P availability. However, the suitability of using the Po content of organic residues to predict their agronomic value with respect to P nutrition needs further evaluation.     

黄土高原南缘土石山区耕地地力评价研究

以黄土高原南缘土石山区陕西省宝鸡市陈仓区为例,通过野外采样和室内分析,获取大量耕地地力相关信息,在GIS的支持下,利用层次分析法、模糊评价等数学方法和模型对研究区耕地地力进行定量化评价。结果表明:该区耕地基础地力可分为6等,其中1等地占3.7%,2等地占17.2%,3等地占36.8%,4等地占24.1%,5等地占9.4%,6等地占8.9%。水浇地、园地和菜地主要集中在1、2、3等地;4等地在该区分布范围较广;而5、6等地主要分布于坡度较大、海拔较高、土壤耕层较薄的山区,利用类型主要为旱地。本研究分析了研究区各乡镇耕地数量及质量的空间分布特征,对耕地资源的科学管理、可持续利用及测土配方施肥有积极意义。     

Impact of subterranean fungus-growing termites (Isoptera, Macrotermitiane) on chosen soil properties in a West African savanna

Fungus-growing termites (Isoptera, Macrotermitinae) play an important role in tropical ecosystems in modifying soil physical properties. Most of the literature regarding the impact of termites on soil properties refers to termite epigeous mounds. In spite of their abundance and activity in African savannas, few studies deal with the properties of underground nest structures (fungus-comb chambers) built by subterranean Macrotermitinae termites. We tested whether these termites significantly modify the soil physico-chemical properties within their nests in a humid tropical savanna and whether these effects are different for two termite species with differing building behaviour. Termite-worked soil material was collected from fungus-comb chamber walls of two widespread species: Ancistrotermes cavithorax, which builds diffuse and ephemeral nests and Odontotermes nr pauperans, which most often builds concentrated and permanent nests for a comparatively much longer period of time. Neither species influenced soil pH but both significantly modified soil texture and C-N content in their nest structures. A strong impact on clay-particle size was also detected but no significant differences in clay mineralogy. Thus Odontotermes has a greater effect on soil properties, that could be explained by its building behaviour and the concentration in space of its nest units. Therefore, spatial pattern and life-span of fungus-comb chambers should be an important parameter to be considered in the functional role of subterranean Macrotermitinae termites in the savanna.     

施加氮磷肥对希腊北部高原草地上土壤pH与植被生产力的相互关系的影响

The potential role of soil pH in modulating plant productivity was assessed on the basis of dry mass, harvested in the form of 0.25 m2 quadrats, in two low-productivity upland grasslands of northern Greece subjected to annual factorial nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilization (15 g N m-2 year-1 and 10 g P m-2 year-1) over a minimum period of 3 years. It was hypothesized that under these particular conditions, a positive relationship would exist between soil pH and plant productivity and, further, that N or P fertilizer application of a nutrient limited system, would result in a weakening of this positive relationship. A significant positive relationship was confirmed between soil pH and plant productivity in one of the two study areas and a positive trend in the other. Moreover, plant productivity increase, following fertilization, appeared to have a detrimental effect on the soil pH-plant productivity relationship. Findings support the original hypotheses and strengthen the idea that plant diversity-mediated soil pH-plant productivity relationships are a result of the more intense plant speciation that occurred under the more "typical" soil conditions of higher pH in temperate as opposed to tropical regions.     

县域尺度耕地生产能力的空间变异

研究河北省雄县耕地生产能力空间变异性特征及其主控因素,为黑龙港典型区耕地质量等级与生产能力提升及可持续利用提供指导。该文在分析县域和景观尺度耕地生产能力变异性特征的基础上,引用分类回归树模型探讨耕地自然属性因素和耕地管理因素对不同尺度耕地生产能力的影响。结果表明：县域尺度上耕地生产能力差异显著,呈现出西南部和东部高,东南部和中西部低的空间分布格局。5种景观尺度上耕地生产能力由高到低依次为：轻壤蒙金型小二坡地＞轻壤均质型小二坡地>黏壤均质型小低平地>砂壤蒙金型准缓岗>砂壤均质型准缓岗;耕地管理因素较耕地自然属性因素更能解释县域耕地生产能力空间变异性,主控因素依次是灌溉保证率、氮肥施用量、耕地速效氮和耕地有机质,贡献率总计51%。耕地自然属性因素是不同景观尺度间的主控因素,依次为阳离子交换量、有机质、速效钾和速效氮含量,贡献率总计55%;不同景观尺度上耕地生产能力主要受耕地管理因素所主控。因此,要想维持区域高水平耕地生产能力应注意调整耕地管理措施,包括节约集约用水,控制氮肥施用量（不宜超过240.34 kg/hm2）和加强耕地培肥管理。     

Influences of recovery from clear-cut, climate variability, and thinning on the carbon balance of a young ponderosa pine plantation

From 1999 to 2002, the variations in carbon flux due to management practices (shrub removal, thinning) and climate variability were observed in a young ponderosa pine forest originated from clear-cutting and plantation in 1990. These measurements were done at the Blodgett Forest Ameriflux site located in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. Thinning in spring 2000 decreased the leaf area index (LAI) by 34% and added 496 g C m⁻² of wood and leaf debris at the soil surface. Total ecosystem respiration was not significantly affected by thinning (1261 g C m⁻² in 1999 and 1273 g C m⁻² in 2000), while canopy photosynthesis decreased by 202 g C m⁻². As a result the ecosystem shifted from a net sink of CO₂ in 1999 (−201 g C m⁻²) to a small net source in 2000 (13 g C m⁻²). Woody and leaf debris resulting from thinning only accounted for maximum 1% and 7% of the total respiration flux, respectively. Thinning did not affect the relative proportion of the different components of respiration to an observable degree. Low soil water availability in summer 2001 and 2002 decreased the proportion of soil respiration to the total respiration. It also imposed limitations on canopy photosynthesis: as a result the ecosystem shifted from a sink to a source of carbon 1 month earlier than in a wetter year (1999). The leaf area index and biomass of the stand increased rapidly after the thinning. The ecosystem was again a sink of carbon in 2001 (−97 g C m⁻²) and 2002 (−172 g C m⁻²). The net carbon uptake outside the traditionally-defined growing season can be important in this ecosystem (NEE = −50 g C m⁻² in 2000), but interannual variations are significant due to differences in winter temperatures.     

Models of the habitat associations and distributions of insectivorous bats of the Top End of the Northern Territory, Australia

Generalised linear modelling (GLM) was used to develop habitat models for 25 of the 28 microchiropteran bat species that occur in the wet-dry tropics of the Northern Territory (the ‘Top End’). Based on these models, a geographic information system (GIS) was used to derive probability of occurrence maps for each species. Almost all of the models identified a unique combination of environmental variables, and the resulting probability of occurrence maps revealed contrasting predicted distributions. The reliability of the models was variable. Based on model variances, 11 of the species models were considered to be weak (<30% of the deviance captured) whereas seven models were robust (>40% of the deviance captured). ROC plot analysis suggested all models were at least moderately robust (area under the ROC curve >0.7). Annual rainfall and habitat complexity were identified as significant variables in the majority of the models. All of the spatial models were combined to derive a probability map of species richness of microchiropteran bats in the Top End. This map shows greatest species richness in the north-west and north-central parts of the study area.     

No-till technology and legume rotation for sustainable crop production in the Douglas Daly region of the Northern Territory, Australia

The adoption of no till/legume rotation practices combined with low levels of fertiliser, herbicide and insecticide appear to be key elements in the development of an ecologically stable and sustainable crop production system in the Douglas Daly Region of the Northern Territory. Tillage studies involving a maize-soybean rotation system over a 4-year period have shown a 41% average increase in maize yield under no till compared with conventional till. The difference between no till and conventional till was generally highest during the drier years. In a 1-year study of a sorghum-peanut rotation, the yields of sorghum and peanut under no till were similar to those under conventional till. Application of nitrogen fertilizer increased sorghum flag leaf area by an average of 12% for no till compared with conventional till. Total nitrogen concentration in peanut leaves under no till was significantly higher than under conventional till indicating better nodulation and nitrogen fixation under no till.

Sorghum grown following a 2-year-old Centrosema pascuorum cultivar ‘Cavalcade’ ley showed no significant response to applied nitrogen. In the top 60 cm of the soil average soil nitrate nitrogen at sowing and at 8 weeks after sowing was 30 ppm, indicating a reasonable rate of mineralisation in the soil. This was further supported by the fact that the nitrogen content of sorghum stover plus grain was 112 kg ha⁻¹ at the zero level of applied nitrogen.     

两种取样尺度下土壤重金属空间变异特征研究

通过在两种取样尺度下采集重庆地区土壤样品,测定土壤重金属As、Hg、Cd、Pb、Cr含量,研究不同取样尺度下地统计学方法对土壤重金属空间分析的实用性和空间插值质量。研究结果表明,除小尺度中As、Cd、Cr呈正态分布,小尺度中的Pb、Hg和大尺度中As、Hg、Cd、Pb、Cr均呈偏态分布。各重金属变异系数存在明显空间变异(CV介于23.2%~24.1%),小尺度下空间变异较小,大尺度下空间变异大。在两种取样尺度下,土壤重金属均存在典型的半方差结构,表明采用地统计学方法进行重金属空间变异分析是可行的。在小尺度下,各重金属块金系数介于0.112~0.736之间,表明具有强或中等空间自相关;在大尺度下,块金系数介于0.301~0.570之间,表明具有中等空间自相关。空间插值和交互检验结果表明,As、Cr、Hg、Cd在小尺度下的空间估测结果能准确地反映变量的空间变异,在大尺度下估值有偏差,Pb在两种尺度下的估测结果均有偏差。     

Seasonal variation and fire effects on CH4, N2O and CO2 exchange in savanna soils of northern Australia

Tropical savanna ecosystems are a major contributor to global CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O greenhouse gas exchange. Savanna fire events represent large, discrete C emissions but the importance of ongoing soil-atmosphere gas exchange is less well understood. Seasonal rainfall and fire events are likely to impact upon savanna soil microbial processes involved in N₂O and CH₄ exchange. We measured soil CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O fluxes in savanna woodland (Eucalyptus tetrodonta/Eucalyptus miniata trees above sorghum grass) at Howard Springs, Australia over a 16 month period from October 2007 to January 2009 using manual chambers and a field-based gas chromatograph connected to automated chambers. The effect of fire on soil gas exchange was investigated through two controlled burns and protected unburnt areas. Fire is a frequent natural and management action in these savanna (every 1-2 years). There was no seasonal change and no fire effect upon soil N₂O exchange. Soil N₂O fluxes were very low, generally between −1.0 and 1.0 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹, and often below the minimum detection limit. There was an increase in soil NH₄⁺ in the months after the 2008 fire event, but no change in soil NO₃⁻. There was considerable nitrification in the early wet season but minimal nitrification at all other times.Savanna soil was generally a net CH₄ sink that equated to between −2.0 and −1.6 kg CH₄ ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ with no clear seasonal pattern in response to changing soil moisture conditions. Irrigation in the dry season significantly reduced soil gas diffusion and as a consequence soil CH₄ uptake. There were short periods of soil CH₄ emission, up to 20 μg C m⁻² h⁻¹, likely to have been caused by termite activity in, or beneath, automated chambers. Soil CO₂ fluxes showed a strong bimodal seasonal pattern, increasing fivefold from the dry into the wet season. Soil moisture showed a weak relationship with soil CH₄ fluxes, but a much stronger relationship with soil CO₂ fluxes, explaining up to 70% of the variation in unburnt treatments. Australian savanna soils are a small N₂O source, and possibly even a sink. Annual soil CH₄ flux measurements suggest that the 1.9 million km² of Australian savanna soils may provide a C sink of between −7.7 and −9.4 Tg CO₂-e per year. This sink estimate would offset potentially 10% of Australian transport related CO₂-e emissions. This CH₄ sink estimate does not include concurrent CH₄ emissions from termite mounds or ephemeral wetlands in Australian savannas.     

Seasonality of organic phosphorus mineralization in the rhizosphere of the native savanna grass, Trachypogon plumosus

Savanna ecosystems have low primary productivity, strong seasonality, and acid soils with low phosphorus (P) content. Organic P (Po) comprises around 50% of the total soil P and is plant-available only after mineralization. Rhizosphere processes mediated by plants, microorganisms and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) are important for plant P nutrition. We studied P transformation rates, Po-fractionation, acid phosphomonoesterase activity (APA), AM status, dehydrogenase activity (DHA), and bacterial and fungal plate counts in the rhizosphere of the native dominant grass Trachypogon plumosus. We collected samples from three acid savanna soils differing in order and P content (Entisol, Vertisol and Ultisol) at Estación Experimental La Iguana (Northeastern Venezuela) during the dry, rainy and transitional seasons over a 2-year-period. Less available Po fractions (moderately labile, moderately and highly resistant) seem to be involved in short-term P-cycling transformations as they significantly varied with season. During the rainy season plant P content (576-1160 mg P kg⁻¹ dry weight) and APA (44-200 mg PNP kg⁻¹ dry soil) were higher, while microbial number and activity (DHA) were lower. The higher P availability in the Entisol (6-9 mg P kg⁻¹ dry soil) resulted in a better plant nutritional status and inhibited APA. T. plumosus seems to be highly dependent on AM symbiosis (45-71% AM colonized root length, 0.6-8 AM spores g⁻¹ dry soil), especially during the rainy season. Po mineralization processes, mediated by biological associations in the rhizosphere, are crucial for understanding seasonal P-cycling and fertility in acid savanna soils.